REESE  LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA.    ^ 
l^eceived  „  ,  igo     .  [ 

t/^ccession  No.       82983.  •   Class  No. 


NON-CHRISTIAN  RELIGIONS 
OF  THE  WORLD 


Sir  William  Muir,  Prof.  Legge,  LLD.,    The  Revs. 
J.  Murray  Mitchell,  LLD.,  and  H.  R. 
Reynolds^  D.D. 


SELECTED    FROM   THE 


LIVING    PAPERS    SERIES 


FLEMING  H.  REVELL  COMPANY 

New  York  Chicago  Toronto 

The  Religious  Tract  Society,  London, 


lll^ 


CONTENTS 


I. 

THE  RISE  AND  DECLINE  OF  ISLAM. 
By   Sir   WILLIAM    MUIR,    K.C.S.L,    LL.D.,    D.C.L. 

II. 

CHRISTIANITY  AND  CONFUCIANISM  COMPARED  IN  THEIR 
TEACHING  OF  THE  WHOLE  DUTY  OF  MAN. 
By  JAMES  LEGGE,  LL.D. 

III. 

THE   ZEND-AVESTA   AND  THE   RELIGION  OF  THE  PARSIS. 

By  J.  MURRAY  MITCHELL,  M.A.,  LL.D. 

IV. 

THE  HINDU  RELIGION :   A  SKETCH  AND  A  CONTRAST. 

By  J.  MURRAY  MITCHELL,  M.A.,  LL.D. 

V. 

BUDDHISM :   A  COMPARISON  AND  A   CONTRAST  BETWEEN 

BUDDHISM  AND  CHRISTIANITY. 

By  the  Rev.  HENRY  ROBERT  REYNOLDS,  D.D. 

VI. 

CHRISTIANITY  AND  ANCIENT  PAGANISM. 

By  J.  MURRAY  MITCHELL,  M.A.,  LL.D. 


82983 


THE 

RISE  AND   DECLINE 

OF 

ISLAM 

BY 

SIR  WILLIAM   MUIR,  K.C.S.I.,  LL.D.,  D.C.L. 


^tgnmem  xxl  the  Txhcu 


The  progress  of  Islam  was  slow  until  Mahomet  cast  aside 
the  precepts  of  toleration,  and  adopted  an  aggressive,  mili- 
tant policy.  Then  it  became  rapid.  The  motives  which 
animated  the  armies  of  Islam  were  mixed — material  and 
spiritual.  Without  the  truths  contained  in  the  system, 
success  would  have  been  impossible,  but  neither  without  the 
sword  would  the  religion  have  been  planted  in  Arabia,  nor 
beyond.  The  alternatives  offered  to  conquered  peoples 
were  Islam,  the  Sword,  or  Tribute.  The  drawbacks  and 
attractions  of  the  system  are  examined.  The  former  were 
not  such  as  to  deter  men  of  the  world  from  embracing  the 
faith.  The  sexual  indulgences  sanctioned  by  it  are  such  as 
to  make  Islam  "  the  Easy  way." 

The  spread  of  Islam  was  stayed  whenever  military  success 
was  checked.  The  Faith  was  meant  for  Arabia  and  not 
for  the  world,  hence  it  is  constitutionally  incapable  of 
change  or  development  The  degradation  of  woman  hin- 
ders the  growth  of  freedom  and  civilization  under  it. 

Christianity  is  contrasted  in  the  means  used  for  its  pro- 
pagation, the  methods  it  employed  in  grappling  with  and 
overcoming  the  evils  that  it  found  existing  in  the  world,  in 
the  relations  it  established  between  the  sexes,  in  its  teaching 
with  regard  to  the  respective  duties  of  the  civil  and  spiritual 
powers,  and,  above  all,  in  its  redeeming  character,  and  then 
the  conclusion  come  to  that  Christianity  is  Divine  in  its 
origin. 


UNIVERSITT 

THE  RISE  AND  DECLINE  OF  ISLAM, 


ONGST  the  reliarions  of  the  earth,  Islam  isiamprt 

°  eminent  u 

must  take  the  precedence  in  the  rapidit}^  ^^S^ 
and  force  with  which  it  spread.  Within 
a  very  short  time  from  its  planting  in 
Arabia,  the  new  faith  had  subdued  great  and 
populous  provinces.  In  half  a  dozen  years,  count- 
ing from  the  death  of  the  founder,  the  religion 
prevailed  throughout  Arabia,  Syria,  Persia,  and 
Egypt;  and  before  the  close  of  the  century,  it 
ruled  supreme  over  the  greater  part  of  the  vast 
populations  from  Gibraltar  to  the  Oxus,  from  the 
Black  Sea  to  the  river  Indus. 

In  comparison  with  this  grand  outburst,  the  first  Propaffatio* 
efforts  of  Christianity  were,  to  the  outward  eye,  christfanity 
faint  and  feeble ;  and  its  extension  so  gradual,  that 
what  the  Mahometan  religion  achieved  in  ten  or 
twenty  years,  it  took  the  faith  of  Jesus  long  cen- 
turies to  accomplish. 

The  object  of  these  few  pages  ia,  first,  to  inquire  5*j^*°^  *^^ 
briefly  into  the  causes  which  led  to  the  marvellous 
rapidity  of  the  first  movement  of  Islam  ;  secondly,  to 
consider  the  reasons  which    eventually  stayed  its 
ad  ranee;  and,  lastli/,  to  ascertain  wby  Mahometan 


The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam. 


countries  have  kept  so  far  in  the  rear  of  other  lands 
in  respect  of  intellectual  and  social  progress.  In 
short,  the  question  is,  how  it  was  that,  Pallas-like, 
the  Faith  sprang,  ready  armed,  from  the  ground, 
conquering  and  to  conquer  ;  and  why,  the  weapons 
dropping  from  its  grasp,  Islam  hegan  to  lose  its 
pristine  vigour,  and  finally  relapsed  into  inactivity. 


Two  periods 
in  the 

mission  of 
Mahomet. 


I.  Ministry 
at  Mecca; 
A.i>.«0i)-623. 


The  Rapid  Spread  of  Islam. 

The  personal  ministry  of  Mahomet  divides  itself 
into  two  distinct  periods.  First,  his  life  at  Mecca, 
as  a  preacher  and  a  prophet.  Second,  his  life  at 
Medina,  as  a  prophet  and  a  king. 

It  is  only  in  the  first  of  these  periods  that  Islam 
at  all  runs  parallel  with  Christianity.  The  great 
hody  of  his  feUow-citizens  rejected  the  ministry 
of  Mahomet,  and  bitterly  opposed  his  claims.  His 
efforts  at  Mecca  were,  therefore,  confined  to  teach- 
ing and  preaching,  and  to  the  publishing  of  the 
earlier  "  Suras  "  or  chapters  of  his  "  Revelation." 
After  some  thirteen  years  spent  thus,  his  converts, 
to  the  number  of  about  a  hundred  and  fifty  men 
and  women,  were  forced  by  the  persecution  of  the 
Coreish  (the  ruling  tribe  at  Mecca,  from  which 
Mahomet  was  descended),  to  quit  their  native 
city  and  emigrate  to  Medina.'  A  hundred  more 
'  See  Life  of  Mahomet,  p.  188.    Smith  aud  Elder. 


The  Rapid  Spread  of  Islam. 


•I 

limited. 


had  previously  fled  from  Mecca  for  the  same 
cause,  and  found  refuge  at  the  coui-t  of  the 
Negus,  or  king  of  Abyssinia;  and  there  were 
already  a  small  company  of  followers  amongst  the 
citizens  of  Medina.  At  the  utmost,  therefore,  the 
number  of  disciples  gained  over  by  the  simple 
resort  to  teaching  and  preaching,  did  not,  during 
the  first  twelve  years  of  Mahomet's  ministry, 
exceed  a  few  hundreds.  It  is  true  that  the  soil 
at  Mecca  was  stubborn  and  (unlike  that  of  Judsea) 
wholly  unprepared.  The  cause  also,  at  times, 
became  the  object  of  sustained  and  violent  op- 
position. Even  so  much  of  success  was  conse- 
quently, under  the  peculiar  circumstances,  remark- 
able. But  it  was  by  no  means  singular.  The  pro- 
gress fell  far  short  of  that  made  by  Christianity 
during  the  corresponding  period  of  its  existence,* 
and  indeed  by  many  reformers  who  have  been  the 
preachers  of  a  new  faith.  It  gave  no  promise  what- 
ever of  the  marvellous  spectacle  that  was  about 
to  follow. 

Having  escaped  from  Mecca,  and  found  a  new  u  djaag, 
and  congenial  home  in  Medina,  Mahomet  was  not  MeSnaf  * 
long  in  changing  his  front.  At  Mecca,  surrounded 
by  enemies,  he  taught  toleration.  He  was  simply 
the  preacher  commissioned  to  d6liver  a  message, 
and  bidden  to  leave  the  responsibility  with  his 
Master  and  his  hearers.     He  might  argue  with  the 

'  Lif0  of  Mahomstf  p.  172,  where  the  results  are  oomparad. 


The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam. 


Arabia 
conTerted 
from 

Medina  at 
the  point  of 
the  sword. 


A.D.6S0. 


A.V.68S. 


disputants,  but  it  must  be  "in  a  way  most  mild  and 
gracious;"  for  "in  religion"  (sucb  was  his  teaching 
before  he  reached  Medina)  "  there  should  be  neither 
violence  nor  constraint."^  At  Medina  the  precepts 
of  toleration  were  quickly  cast  aside,  and  his  whole 
policy  reversed.  No  sooner  did  Mahomet  begin  to 
be  recognizv3  i  and  obeyed  as  the  chief  of  Medina, 
than  he  proceeded  to  attack  the  Jewish  tribes 
settled  in  the  neighbourhood,  because  they  refused 
to  acknowledge  his  claims  and  believe  in  him  as 
a  prophet  foretold  in  their  Scriptures  ;  two  of  these 
tribes  were  exiled,  and  the  third  exterminated  in 
cold  blood.  In  the  second  year  after  the  Hegira,  or 
flight  from  Mecca  (the  period  from  which  the  Ma- 
hometan era  dates),  he  began  to  plunder  the  caravans 
of  the  Coreish,  which  passed  near  to  Medina  on 
their  mercantile  journeys  between  Arabia  and  Syria. 
So  popular  did  the  cause  of  the  now  militant  and 
marauding  prophet  speedily  become  amongst  the 
citizens  of  Medina  and  the  tribes  around,  that 
after  many  battles  fought  with  varying  success,  he 
was  able,  in  the  eighth  year  of  the  Hegira,  to 
re-enter  his  native  city  at  the  head  of  ten  thou 
sand  armed  followers.  Thenceforward,  success 
was  assured.  None  dared  to  oppose  his  preten- 
sions. And  before  his  death,  in  the  eleventh  year 
of  the  Hegira,  all  Arabia,  from  Bab-el-Mandeb 
and  Oman  to  the  confines  of   the  Syrian  desert, 

■  Life  of  Mahomet,  p.  341 ;  Suraii.  267;  xiix.  46. 


The  Rapid  Spread  of  Islam. 


was  forced  to  submit  to  the  supreme  authority 
of  the  now  kingly  prophet,  and  to  recognize  the 
faith  and  obligations  of  Islam.  ^ 

This  Ibldm,  so  called  from  its  demanding  the  entire  ^J£°  °' 
"  surrender  "  of  the  believer  to  the  will  and  service  d«««^^^- 
of  God,  is  based  on  the  recognition  of  Mahomet  as 
a  prophet  foretold  in  the  Jewish  and  Christian 
Scriptures, — the  last  and  greatest  of  the  prophets. 
On  him  descended  the  Goran,  from  time  to  time,  an 
immediate  revelation  from  the  Almighty.  Idolatry 
and  Polytheism  are  with  iconoclastic  zeal  denounced 
as  sins  of  the  deepest  dye  ;  while  the  unity  of  the 
Deity  is  proclaimed  as  the  grand  and  cardinal  doc- 
trine of  the  Faith.  Divine  providence  pervades  the 
minutest  concerns  of  life;  and  predestination  is 
taught  in  its  most  naked  form.  Yet  prayer  is  en- 
joined as  both  meritorious  and  effective ;  and  at  five 
stated  times  every  day  must  it  be  specially  per- 
formed. The  duties  generally  of  the  moral  law  are 
enforced,  though  an  evil  laxity  is  given  in  the  matter 
of  polygamy  and  divorce.  Tithes  are  demanded  as 
alms  for  the  poor.  A  fast  during  the  month  of 
Ramzan  must  be  kept  throughout  the  whole  of 
every  day ;  and  the  yearly  pilgrimage  to  Mecca, — 
an  ancient  institution,  the  rites  of  which  were  now 

*  The  only  exceptions  were  the  Jews  of  Kheibar  and  the  Christians 
of  Najrjin,  who  were  permitted  to  continue  in  the  profession  of  their 
faith.  They  were,  however,  forced  by  Omar  to  quit  the  peninsula, 
which  thenceforward  remained  exclusively  Mahometan. 

"  Islam "  is  a  synonym  for  the  Mussulman  faith.  Its  original 
meaniiig  is  ''  surrender  "  of  oneself  to  God. 


The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam. 


Arabia 
apostatixea: 
but  is 
speedily 
reconquered 
and 

redaimsd, 
A.D.  63t. 


divested  of  their  heathenish  accompaniments,— 
maintained.  The  existence  of  angels  and  devils  is 
taught ;  and  heaven  and  hell  are  depicted  in  ma- 
terial colours, — the  one  of  sensuous  pleasure,  the 
other  of  bodily  torment.  Finally,  the  resurrection, 
judgment,  and  retribution  of  good  and  evil,  are  set 
forth  in  great  detail.  Such  was  the  creed — there 
is  no  god  but  the  Lord,  and  Mahomet  is  his  prophet 
— to  which  Arabia  now  became  obedient. 

But  immediately  on  the  death  of  Mahomet,  the 
entire  Peninsula  relapsed  into  apostasy.  Medina 
and  Mecca  remained  faithful ;  but  everywhere 
else  the  land  seethed  with  rebellion.  Some 
tribes  joined  the  "  false  prophets,"  of  whom  four 
had  arisen  in  different  parts  of  Arabia;  some 
relapsed  into  their  ancient  heathenism;  while 
others  proposed  a  compromise, — they  would  observe 
the  stated  times  of  prayer,  but  would  be  excused 
the  tithe.  Everywhere  was  rampant  anarchy. 
The  apostate  tribes  attacked  Medina,  but  were 
repulsed  by  the  brave  old  Caliph  Abu  Bekr, 
who  refused  to  abate  one  jot  or  tittle,  as  the  suc- 
cessor of  Mahomet,  of  the  obligations  of  Islam. 
Eleven  columns  were  sent  forth,  under  as  many 
leaders,  trained  in  the  warlike  school  of  Ma- 
homet. These  fought  their  way  step  by  step 
successfully ;  and  thus,  mainly  through  the  wisdom 
and  firmness  of  Abu  Bekr,  and  the  valour 
and  genius  of  Khalid,  "the  Sword  of  God,"  th# 


The  Rapid  S'pread  of  Islam, 


Arab  tribes,  one  by  one,  were  overcome,  and  forced 
back  into  tbeir  allegiance  and  the  profession  of 
Islam.  The  re-conquest  of  Arabia,  and  re-im- 
position of  Mahometanism  as  the  national  faith, 
which  it  took  a  whole  year  to  accomplish,  is  thus 
described  by  an  Arabian  author,  who  wrote  at  the 
close  of  the  second  century  of  the  Mahometan  era : 

After  his  decease,  there  remained  not  one  of  the  followers  of 
the  Prophet  that  did  not  apostatize,  saving  only  a  small  company 
of  his  * '  Companions  "  and  kinsfolk,  who  hoped  thus  to  secure 
the  government  to  themselves.  Hereupon,  Abu  Bekr  displayed 
mai'vellous  skill,  energy,  and  address,  so  that  the  power  passed 
into  his  hands.  .  .  .  And  thus  he  persevered  imtil  the  apostate 
tribes  were  all  brought  back  to  their  allegiance,  some  by  kindly 
treatment,  persuasion,  and  craft ;  some  through  terror  and  fear 
of  the  sword  ;  and  others  by  the  prospect  of  power  and  wealth, 
as  well  as  by  the  lusts  and  pleasures  of  this  life.  And  so  it 
came  to  pass  that  all  the  Bedouin  tribes  were  in  the  end  con- 
verted outwardly,  but  not  from  inward  conviction.^ 

The  temper  of  the  tribes,  thus  reclaimed  by  force  JJj^g  t^us 
of  arms,  was  at  the  first  strained  and  sullen.     But  weij^Hhe 
the   scene   soon   changed.      Suddenly   the   whole 
peninsula  was  shaken,  and  the  people,  seized  with 
a  burning  zeal,  issued  forth  to  plant  the  new  faith 
in  other  lands.     It  happened  on  this  wise. 


first,  sullen. 


The  columns  sent  from  Medina  to  reduce  the  re-  ^^^^^^  ^y 

war  cry, 

bellious  tribes  to  the  north-west  on  the  Gulf  of  JJ^S* 
Ayla,  and  to  the  north-east  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  TJ^^l^^ 
came   at  once  into   collision   with   the   Christian  "'' 
Bedouins  of  Syria  on  the  one  hand,  and  with  those 

'  Apology  of  Al  Kindy^  the  Christian^  p.  18.     Smith  &  Elder, 
1882.    This  rsmarkuble  Apolo^fist  will  be  noticed  further  below. 


10  The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam. 

of  Mesopotamia  on  the  other.  These,  again,  were 
immediately  supported  by  the  neighbouring  forces 
of  the  Roman  and  Persian  empires,  whose  vassals 
respectively  they  were.  And  so,  before  many  months, 

\^tm^  Abu  Bekr  found  his  generals  opposed  by  great  and 
imposing  armies  on  either  side.  He  was,  in  fact, 
waging  mortal  combat,  at  one  and  the  same 
moment,  with  the  Kaiser  and  the  Chosroes,  the 
Byzantine  emperor  and  the  great  king  of  Persia 
The  risk  was  imminent,  and  an  appeal  went  forth 
for  help  to  meet  the  danger.  The  battle-cry  re- 
sounded from  one  end  of  Arabia  to  the  other,  and 
electrified  the  land.  Levy  after  levy,  en  masses 
started  up  at  the  call  from  every  quarter  of  the 

•nthxuiasm.  Peninsula ;  and  the  Bedouin  tribes,  as  bees  from 
their  hive,  streamed  forth  in  swarms,  animated  by 
the  prospect  of  conquest,  plunder,  and  captive 
damsels;  or,  if  slain  in  battle,  by  the  still  more 
coveted  prize  of  the  "  Martyr "  in  the  material 
paradise  of  Mahomet.  With  a  military  ardour 
and  new-born  zeal  in  which  carnal  and  spiritual 
aspirations  were  strangely  blended,  the  Arabs 
rushed  forth  to  the  field,  like  the  war-horse  of 
Job,  "  that  smelleth  the  battle  afar  off,  the  thundei 
of  the  captains  and  the  shouting."  Sullen  con- 
straint was  in  a  moment  transformed  into  an 
absolute  devotion  and  fiery  resolve  to  spread  the 
faith.  The  Arab  warrior  became  the  Missionary 
of  Islam. 


The  Rapid  Spread  of  Islam.  11 

It  was  now  the  care  of  Omar,  the  second  Caliph  Arabs,  a 

military 

or  Ruler  of  the  new-born  empire,  to  establish  a  ^Jj^j'^^jj^^. 
system  whereby  the  spirit  militant,  called  into  mobilized  bj 
existence  with  such  force  and  fervour,  might  be  °™"' 
rendered  permanent.  The  entire  Arabian  people 
was  subsidized.  The  surplus  revenues,  which, 
in  rapidly  increasing  volume,  began  to  flow  from 
the  conquered  lands  into  the  Moslem  treasuries, 
were  to  the  last  farthing  distributed  among  the 
soldiers  of  Arabian  descent.  The  whole  nation  was 
enrolled,  and  the  name  of  every  warrior  entered 
upon  the  roster  of  Islam.  Forbidden  to  settle 
anywhere,  and  relieved  from  all  other  work,  the 
Arab  hordes  became,  in  fact,  a  standing  army 
threatening  the  world.  Great  bodies  of  armed 
men  were  kept  thus  ever  mobilized,  separate  and 
in  readiness  for  new  enterprise. 

The  change  which  came  over  the  policy  of  the  Mission  of 

"  XV  Islam 

Founder  of  the  faith  at  Medina,  and  paved  the  ^Srba^^^ 
way  for  this    marvellous    system   of   world-wide 
rapine  and  conversion  to  Islam,  is  thus  described 
by  a  thoughtful  and  sagacious  writer : — 

....  Medina  was  fatal  to  the  higher  capabilities  of  Islam. 
Mahomet  became  then  a  king  ;  his  religion  was  incorporated 
in  a  State  that  had  to  struggle  for  its  life  in  the  fashion  famiHar 
to  the  rough-handed  sons  of  the  desert.  The  Prophet  was 
turned  into  the  legislator  and  commander  ;  his  revelations  were 
now  laws,  and  now  military  orders  and  manifestoes.  The 
mission  of  Islam  became  one  that  only  the  sword  could  accom- 
plish, robbery  of  the  infidel  became  meritorious,  and  conquest 
the  supreme  duty  it  owed  to  the  world.    .  .  • 


12  The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam. 

The  religion  which  lived  an  unprospering  and  precarious 
life,  80  long  as  it  depended  on  the  prophetic  word  alone,  became 
an  aggressive  and  victorious  power,  so  soon  as  it  was  embodied 
in  a  State.^ 

^*K?emer.      Another  learned  and  impartial  authority  tells  us: 

The  Mussulman  power  under  the  first  four  Caliphs  was 
nothing  but  a  grand  religio-political  association  of  Arab  tribes 
for  universal  plunder  and  conquest  under  the  holy  banner  of 
Islam,  and  the  watch- word  "  There  is  no  God  but  The  Lord, 
and  Mahomet  is  His  Apostle."  On  pretext  of  spreading  the 
only  true  religion,  the  Arabs  swallowed  up  fair  provinces  lying 
all  around  ;  and,  driving  a  profitable  business,  enriched  them- 
selves simultaneously  in  a  worldly  sense.* 

Religious  The  motivcs  which  nerved  the  armies  of  Islam 

merit  of 

Khe^tjFot^  ^^^^  ^  strange  combination  of  the  lower  instincts 
khs  Lord.  ^£  nature  with  the  higher  aspirations  of  the  spirit. 
To  engage  in  the  Holy  War  was  the  rarest  and 
most  blessed  of  all  religious  virtues,  and  conferred 
on  the  combatant  a  special  merit ;  and  side  by  side 
with  it  lay  the  bright  prospect  of  spoil  and  female 
slaves,  conquest  and  glory.  "  Mount  thy  horse," 
said  Os^maibn  Zeid  to  Abu  Bekr  as  he  accompanied 
the  Syrian  army  a  little  way  on  its  march  out  of 
Medina.  "  Nay,"  replied  the  Caliph,  "  I  will  not 
ride ;  but  I  will  walk,  and  soil  my  feet  a  little 
space  in  the  ways  of  the  Lord.  Verily,  every 
footstep  in  the  ways  of  the  Lord  is  equal  in  merit 
to    manifold    good   works,    and    wipeth    away   a 

'    Principal    Fairbaim:     "The    Primitive    Polity    of    Islam," 
Contemporary  Review,  December,  1882,  pp.  866,  867. 
»  •  Herr   von   Kremer,   CuUurgesehichte  cUs    Orients,  unter    den 

Chalifen,  vol.  i.,  p.  383, 


The  Hapid  Spread  of  Islam.  13 

multitude  of  sins."^  And  of  the  "  Martyrs,"  those 
who  fell  in  these  crusading  campaigns,  Mahomet 
thus  described  the  blessed  state : — 

Think  not,  in  any  wise,  of  those  killed  in  the  ways  of  the 
liord,  a^  if  they  were  dead.  Yea,  they  are  alive,  and  are 
nourished  with  their  Lord,  exulting  in  that  which  God  hath 
given  them  of  His. favour,  and  rejoicing  in  behalf  of  those  who 
have  not  yet  joined  them,  but  are  following  after.  No  terror 
afflicteth  them,  neither  are  they  grieved. — Sura  in. 

The  material  fruits  of  their  victories  raised  the  Material 

n  .  .  .  fruits  of 

Arabs  at  once  from  bemsr  the  needy  inhabitants  Moslem 
of  a  stony  sterile  soil,  where,  with  difficulty,  they 
eked  out  a  hardy  subsistence,  to  be  the  masters 
of  rich  and  luxuriant  lands  flowing  with  milk  and 
honey.  After  one  of  his  great  victories  on  the 
plains  of  Chaldaea,  KhMid  called  together  his 
troops,  flushed  with  conquest,  and  lost  in  wonder 
at  the .  exuberance  around  them,  and  thus  ad- 
dressed them:  "Ye  see  the  riches  of  the  land. 
Its  paths  drop  fatness  and  plenty,  so  that  the 
fruits  of  the  earth  are  scattered  abroad,  even  as 
stones  are  in  Arabia.  If  but  as  a  provision 
for  this  present  life,  it  were  worth  our  while  to 
fight  for  these  fair  fields,  and  banish  care  and 
penury  for  ever  from  us."  Such  were  the  aspira- 
tions dear  to  the  heart  of  evety  Arab  warrior. 
Again,  after  the  battle  of  Jal61a,  a  few  years  later, 
the  treasure  and  spoil  of  the  Persian  monarch» 
captured  by  the   victors,    was  valued    at    thirty 

'  AnnaU  ofth*  Earlp  Caliphate,  p.  9.    Smith  &  Elder,  1889. 


14  The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam. 

million  of  dirhems  (about  a  miUion  sterling).  The 
royal  fifth  (the  Crown  share  of  the  booty)  was  sent 
as  usual  to  Medina,  under  charge  of  Ziad,  who,  in 
the  presence  of  the  CaHph  Omar,  harangued  the 
citizens  in  a  glowing  description  of  what  had  been 
won  in  Persia,  fertile  lands,  rich  cities,  and  endless 
spoil,  beside  captive  maids  and  princesses. 
Rich  booty  In  relating  the  capture  of  Medain  (the  ancient 
capital  of  Ctcsiphon),  tradition  revels  in  the  untold  wealth 
i.D.  637.  which  fell  into  the  hands  of  Sad,  the  conqueror, 
and  his  followers.  Besides  millions  of  treasure, 
there  was  endless  store  of  gold  and  silver  vessels, 
rich  vestments,  and  rare  and  precious  things. 
The  Arabs  gazed  bewildered  at  the  tiara,  brocaded 
vestments,  jewelled  armour,  and  splendid  surround- 
ings of  the  throne.  They  tell  of  a  camel  of  silver, 
life-size,  with  a  rider  of  gold,  and  of  a  golden  horse 
with  emeralds  for  teeth,  the  neck  set  with  rubies, 
the  trappings  of  gold.  And  we  may  read  in  Gibbon 
of  the  marvellous  banqueting  carpet,  representing 
a  garden,  the  ground  of  wrought  gold,  the  walks  of 
silver,  the  meadows  of  emeralds,  rivulets  of  pearls, 
and  flowers  and  fruits  of  diamonds,  rubies,  and 
rare  gems.  The  precious  metals  lost  their  cor 
ventional  value,  gold  was  parted  with  for  its  weight 
in  silver ;  and  so  on.  * 

It  is  the  virtue  of   Islam  that  it  recognizes  a 

*  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fally  chapter  li.  ;  and  AnnaU  of  thu 
Sarly  Caliphate,  p.  184. 


The  Rapid  Spread  of  Islam.  It 

special  Providence,  seeing  the  hand  of  God,  as  in  success  in 
everything,  so  pre-eminently  also  in  victory.  When  SiS^d 
Sad,  therefore,  had  estahlished  himself  in  the 
palace  of  the  Chosroes,  he  was  not  forgetful  to 
render  thanks  in  a  Service  of  praise.  One  of  the 
princely  mansions  was  turned  for  the  moment  into 
a  temple,  and  there,  followed  by  his  troops,  he 
ascribed  the  victory  to  the  Lord  of  Hosts.  The 
lesson  accompanying  the  prayers,  was  taken  from  a 
Sura  (or  i?hapter  of  the  Corein)  which  speaks  of 
Pharaoh  and  his  riders  being  overwhelmed  in  the 
Red  Sea,  and  contains  this  passage,  held  to  be 
peculiarly  appropriate  to  the  occasion: — 

How  many  Qardens  and  Fountains  did  they  leave  behind, 

And  Fields  of  com,  and  fair  Dwelling-places, 
And  pleasant  things  which  they  enjoyed  ! 

Even  thus  have  We  made  another  people  to  inherit  the  same.' 

Such  as  fell  in  the  conflict  were  called  Martyrs ;  dom*"*m'the 
a  halo  of  glory  surrounded  them,  and  special  joys  by  mSS** 
awaited  them  even  on  the  battle-field.  And 
so  it  came  to  pass  that  the  warriors  of  Islam  had 
an  unearthly  longing  for  the  crown  of  martyr- 
dom. The  Caliph  Omar  was  inconsolable  at 
the  loss  of  his  brother,  Zeid,  who  feU  in  the  fatal 
"  Garden  of  Death,"  at  the  battle  of  Yem^ma : 
"  Thou  art  returned  home,"  he  said  to  his  son, 
Abdallah,  "safe  and  sound,  and  Zeid  is  dead. 
Wherefore  wast  not  thou  slain  before  him  ?     I 

Ibtd  ;  and  Sura  xliv.  t.  25.     Wej  that  ie,  the  Lord. 


crusaders 


16  The  Rise  and  Decliifie  of  Islam, 

wish  not  to  see  thy  face.*'  "Father,"  answered 
S,wf of '""  Abdallah,  ''  he  asked  for  the  crown  of  martyrdom, 
*^^  °™"  and  the  Lord  granted  it.  I  strove  after  the  same, 
hut  it  was  not  given  unto  me."^  It  was  the 
proud  boast  of  the  Saracens  in  their  summons 
to  the  craven  Greeks  and  Persians,  that  "  they 
loved  death  more  than  their  foes  loved  life.'* 
Familiar  with  the  pictures  drawn  in  the  Coran 
of  the  beautiful  "'  Houries "  of  Paradise,^  the 
Saracens  believed  that  immediate  fruition  on  the 
field  of  battle  was  the  martyr's  special  prize. 
We  are  told  of  a  Moslem  soldier,  fourscore  years 
of  age,  who,  seeing  a  comrade  fall  by  his  side, 
cried  out,  **  0  Paradise !  how  close  art  thou 
beneath  the  arrow's  point  and  the  falchion's  flash ! 
0  Hashim !  even  now  I  see  heaven  opened,  and 
black-eyed  maidens  all  bridally  attired,  clasping 
thee  in  their  fond  embrace."  And  shouting  thus, 
the  aged  warrior,  fired  again  with  the  ardour  of 
youth,  rushed  upon  the  enemy,  and  met  the  envied 
fate.  For  those  who  survived  there  was  the  less 
ethereal  but  closer  prospect  of  Persian,  Greek,  or 

*  Annals  of  the  Early  Caliphate,  p.  46. 

•  See,  e.g.,  Sura  Ixxriii. ;  "  Verily  for  the  Pious,  there  is  a  blissful 
abode :  gardens  and  vineyards ;  and  damsels  with  swelling  bosoms, 
of  a  fitting  age ;  and  a  full  cup.  Lovely  large-eyed  girls,  like  pearls 
hidden  in  their  shells,  a  reward  for  that  which  the  faithful  shall 
have  wrought.  Verily  We  have  created  them  of  a  rare  creation, 
virgins,  young  and  fascinating.  .  .  .  Modest  damsels  averting  their 
eyes,  whom  no  man  shall  have  known  before,  nor  any  Jinn,"  etc. 

The  reader  will  not  fail  to  be  struck  by  the  materialistic  cha- 
vaeter  of  Mahomet's  Paradise. 


The  Bapid  Spread  of  Islam.  17 

Coptic  women,  botli  maids  and  matrons,  who,  on 
"being  taken  captive  by  their  right  hand,"  were 
forthwith,  according  to  the  Coran,  without  stint 
of  number,  at  the  conqueror's  will  and  pleasure. 
These,  immediately  they  were  made  prisoners, 
might  (according  to  the  example  of  Mahomet  him- 
self at  Kheibar)  be  carried  off  without  further 
ceremony  to  the  victor's  tent ;  and  in  this  respect 
the  Saracens  certainly  were  nothing  loth  to  execute 
upon  the  heathen  the  judgment  written  in  their 
law.  So  strangely  was  religious  fanaticism  fed 
and  fostered  in  the  Moslem  camp  by  incentives 
irresistible  to  the  Arab ; — fight  and  foray,  the  spoil 
of  war  and  captive  charms. 

The  courage  of  the  troops  was  stimulated  by  the  Martial 

.  .  ,  passages 

divine  promises  of  victory,  which  were  read  (and  on  reciteS?" 
like  occasions  still  are  read)  at  the  head  of  each  battle.' 
column  drawn  up  for  battle.  Thus,  on  the  field  of 
Cadesiya,  which  decided  the  fate  of  Persia,  the 
Sura  Jehddy  with  the  stirring  tale  of  the  thousand 
angels  that  fought  on  the  Prophet's  side  at  Bedr 
was  recited,  and  such  texts  as  these : — 

Stir  wp  the  faithful  unto  battle.  If  there  he 
twenty  stedfast  among  yoUy  they  shall  put  two  hundred 
to  flight  of  the  unbelievers,  and  a  hundred  shall  put 
to  flight  a  thousand.  Victory  is  from  the  Lord.  He 
is  mighty  and  imse.  I  the  Lord  will  cast  terror  into 
the  hearts  of  the  infidels.  Strike  off  their  heads  and 
their  fingers'  ends.  Beware  lest  ye  turn  your  back 
C 


A.D.  635. 


Yermuk 
A.D.  634 


18  The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam. 

in  battle.  Yerily^  he  tlmt  turneth  his  hack  shall 
draw  down  upon  hi^nself  the  wrath  of  God.  His 
abode  shall  be  hell  fire;  an  evil  journey  thither. 
And  we  are  told  that  on  the  recital  of  these 
verses  "  the  heart  of  the  people  was  refreshed,  and 
their  eyes  lightened,  and  they  felt  the  tranquillity 
that  ensueth  thereupon."  Three  days  they  fought, 
and  on  the  morning  of  the  fourth,  returning  with 
unahated  vigour  to  the  charge,  they  scattered  to 
the  winds  the  vast  host  of  Persia.  ^ 
Defeat  of  JS'or  was  it  otherwiso  in  the  great  hattle  of  the 

Byzantine  ^ 

viSuk.^^^  Yermuk,  which  laid  Syria  at  the  feet  of  the  Arahs. 
The  virgin  vigour  of  the  Saracens  was  fired  by  a 
wild  fanatical  zeal  "  to  fight  in  the  ways  of  the 
Lord,"  obtaining  thus  heavenly  merit  and  a  worldly 
prize — the  spoil  of  Syria  and  its  fair  maidens 
ravished  from  their  homes ;  or  should  they  fall 
by  the  sword,  the  black-eyed  houries  waiting 
for  them  on  the  field  of  battle.  "Of  warriors 
nerved  by  this  strange  combination  of  earth  and 
heaven,  of  the  flesh  and  of  the  spirit,  of  the  in- 
centives at  once  of  faith  and  rapine,  of  fanatical 
devotion  to  the  Prophet  and  deathless  passion  for 
the  sex,  ten  might  chase  a  hundred  half-hearted 
Romans.  The  forty  thousand-  Moslems  were 
stronger  far  than  the  two  hundred  and  forty  thou- 
sand of  the  enemy."    The  combat  lasted  for  weeks; 

•  See  Sura  Jehad.    Also  Annals  of  the  Early  Caliphate^  p.  167 
etaeq. 


The  Rapid  Spread  of  Islwrn.  19 


aid  of 

material 

force. 


but  at  the  last  the  Byzantine  force  was  utterly 
routed,  and  thousands  hurled  in  wild  confusion 
over  the  heetling  cliffs  of  the  Yerm{ik,  into  the 
yawning  chasm  of  "Wacusa.  ^ 

Such,  then,  was  the  nature  of  the  Moslem  pro-  "^f^^  ^^ 
paganda,  such  the  agency  by  which  the  faith  was 
spread,  and  such  the  motives  at  once  material 
and  spiritual,  by  which  its  martial  Missionaries 
were  inspired.  No  wonder  that  the  effete  empires 
of  Rome  and  Persia  recoiled  and  quivered  at  the 
shock,  and  that  province  after  province  quickly 
fell  under  the  sway  of  Islam.  It  is  far  from  my 
intention  to  imply  that  the  truths  set  forth  by  the 
new  faith  had  nothing  to  do  with  its  success.  On 
the  contrary,  it  may  well  be  admitted  that  but 
for  those  truths  success  might  have  been  impos- 
sible. The  grand  enunciation  of  the  Divine  Unity, 
and  the  duty  of  an  absolute  submission  to  the 
same;  the  recognition  of  a  special  Providence 
reaching  to  the  minutest  details  of  life;  the  in- 
culcation of  prayer  and  other  religious  duties ;  the 
establishment  of  a  code  in  which  the  leading  prin- 
ciples of  morality  are  enforced ;  and  the  acknow- 
ledgment of  previous  revelation  in  the  Jewish  and 
Christian  Scriptures,  told  not  only  on  the  idolaters 
of  Arabia  and  the  Fire- worshippers  of  Persia,  but 
on  Jews  and  Samaritans,  and  the  followers  of  a 
debased  and  priest-ridden  Christianity.     All  this 

JbmaU  ofths  Early  Caliphate^  p.  105,  et.  seq. 


20 


The  Rise  and  Declitte  of  Islam. 


Alternatives 
offered  to  the 
conquered 
nations: 
Islam,  the 
Sword,  or 
Tribute. 


is  true;  but  it  is  still  not  the  less  true  that 
without  the  sword,  Islam  would  never  have  been 
planted  even  in  Arabia,  much  less  ever  have 
spread  to  the  countries  beyond.  The  weapons  of 
its  warfare  were  "  carnal,"  material,  and  earthly ; 
and  by  them  it  conquered. 

The  pressure  brought  to  bear  on  the  inhabitants 
of  the  countries  overrun  by  Saracen  arms  was  of 
the  most  stringent  character.  They  were  offered 
the  triple  alternative — Islam,  the  Sw^ord  or 
Tribute.  The  first  brought  immediate  relief. 
Acceptance  of  the  faith  not  only  stayed  the  enemy's 
hand,  and  conferred  immunity  from  the  perils  of 
war,  but  associated  the  convert  with  his  conquerors 
in  the  common  brotherhood  and  in  aU  the  privileges 
of  Islam. 

Reading  the  story  of  the  spread  of  Islam,  we 
are  constantly  told  of  this  and  that  enemy,  that 
"  being  beaten,  he  believed  and  embraced  the 
faith.*'  Take  as  an  example  of  an  every- day  occur- 
rence, the  story  of  Hormuzan.  A  Persian  prince 
of  high  rank  long  maintained  a  border  warfare 
against  the  Moslems.  At  last  he  was  taken 
prisoner,  and  sent  in  chains  to  Medina.  As  he 
was  conducted  into  the  Great  Mosque,  Omar 
exclaimed,  **  Blessed  be  the  Lord,  that  hath 
humbled  this  man  and  the  like  of  him  !  "  He  bade 
them  disrobe  the  prisoner,  and  clothe  him  in  sack- 
doth.     Then,  whip  in  hand,  he  upbraided  him  for 


Aeoeptanoe 
of  Islam, 
immediate 
relief  from 
the  Bvord. 


The  Rapid  Spread  of  Islam.  21 

his  oft- repeated  attacks  and  treacliery.  Hormuzan 
made  as  if  fain  to  reply  ;  then  gasping,  like  one  faint 
from  thirst,  he  hegged  for  water  to  drink.  "  Give 
it  him,"  said  the  Caliph,  *'  and  let  him  drink  in 
peace."  "  Nay,"  cried  the  wretched  captive,  trem- 
bling, *'  I  fear  to  drink,  lest  some  one  slay  me 
unawares."  "  Thy  life  is  safe,"  said  Omar,  "  until 
thou  hast  drunk  the  water  up."  The  words  were 
no  sooner  said  than  Hormuzdn  emptied  the  vessel 
on  the  ground.  "  I  wanted  not  the  water,"  he  said, 
"  but  quarter,  and  thou  hast  given  it  me."  "  Liar  1 " 
cried  Omar,  angrily,  "  thy  life  is  forfeit." — "  But 
not,"  interposed  the  bystanders,  "  until  he  drink 
the  water  up."  "  Strange,*'  said  Omar,  "  the 
fellow  hath  deceived  me ;  and  yet  I  cannot  spare 
the  Hfe  of  one  who  hath  slain  so  many  noble 
Moslems.  I  swear  that  thou  shalt  not  gain  by  thy 
deceit,  unless  thou  wilt  forthwith  embrace  Islam." 
Upon  that,  **  believing,  he  made  profession  of  the 
true  faith  upon  the  spot;"  and  thenceforth,  re- 
siding at  Medina,  he  received  a  pension  of  the 
highest  grade. ^ 

On  the  other  hand,  for  those  who  held  to  their  Tribute  <md 

humiliation. 

ancestral  faith,  there  was  no  escape  from  the  second 
or  the  third  alternative.  If  they  would  avoid  the 
sword,  or  having  wielded  it  were  beaten,  they  must 
become  tributary.  Moreover,  the  payment  of  tribute 
is  not  the  only  condition  enjoined  by  the  Cor^n. 

*  See  Annals,  etc.,  p.  253. 


Christians. 


22  Tke  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam. 

"  Fight  against  them  (the  Jews  and  Christians)  until 
they  pay  tribute  with  the  hand,  and  are  humbled" ^ 
The  command  fell  on  willing  ears.  An  ample 
interpretation  was  given  to  it.  And  so  it  came  to 
pass  that,  though  Jews  and  Christians  were,  on  the 
payment  of  tribute,  tolerated  in  the  profession  of 
their  ancestral  faith,  they  were  yet  subjected  (and 
iHsabiiities  still  are  Subjected)  to  severe  humiliation.  The 
Jews  and  uaturo  and  extent  of  the  degradation  to  which 
they  were  brought  down,  and  the  strength  of 
the  inducement  to  purchase  exemption  and  the 
equality  of  civil  rights,  by  surrendering  their 
religion,  may  be  learned  from  the  provisions  which 
were  embodied  in  the  Code  named  The  Ordi- 
nance of  Omar^  which  has  been  more  or  less 
enforced  from  the  earliest  times.  Besides  the 
tribute  and  various  other  imposts  levied  from 
the  "People  of  the  Book,"^  and  the  duty  of  re- 
ceiving Moslem  travellers  quartered  upon  them, 
the  dress  of  both  sexes  must  be  distinguished  by 
broad  stripes  of  yellow.  They  are  forbidden  to 
appear  on  horseback,  and  if  mounted  on  a  mule  or 
ass,  their  stirrups  must  be  of  wood,  and  their 
saddles  known  by  knobs  of  the  same  material. 
Their  graves  must  not  rise  above  the  level  of  the 
soil,  and  the  devil's  mark  is  placed  upon  the  lintel 
of  their  doors.     Their  children  must  be  taught  by 

*  Swa  IX.  T.  30.  '  So  Jews  and  Christians  as  possessing 

Uie  Bible  are  named  in  the  Cor&n. 


The  Rapid  Spread  of  Islam,  2*3 

Moslem  masters,  and  the  race,  however  able  or  well 
qualified,  proscribed  from  any-  office  of  high 
emolument  or  trust.  Besides  the  churches  spared 
at  the  time  of  conquest,  no  new  building  can  be 
erected  for  the  purposes  of  worship ;  nor  can  free 
entrance  into  their  holy  places  at  pleasure  be 
refused  to  the  Moslem.  No  cross  must  remain 
in  view  outside,  nor  any  church  bells  be  rung. 
They  must  refrain  from  processions  in  the  street 
at  Easter,  and  other  solemnities ;  and  from  any- 
thing, in  short,  whether  by  outward  symbol,  word, 
or  deed,  which  could  be  construed  into  rivalry, 
or  competition  with  the  ruling  faith.  Such  was 
the  so-called  Code  of  Omar.  Enforced  with  less 
or  greater  stringency,  according  to  the  intolerance 
and  caprice  of  the  day,  by  different  dynasties, 
it  was,  and  (however  much  relaxed  in  certain 
countries),  it  still  remains,  the  law  of  Islam.  One 
must  admire  the  rare  tenacity  of  the  Christian 
faith,  which,  with  but  scanty  light  and  hope,  held 
its  ground  through  weary  ages  of  insult  and  de- 
pression, and  still  survives  to  see  the  dawning  of 
a  brighter  day.  ^ 

Such,  then,  was  the  hostile  attitude  of  Islam  ccntinump 
militant  in  its  early  days ;  such  the  pressure  brought  in  times  of 
to  bear  on  conquered  lands  for  its  acceptance ; 
and  such  the  disabilities  imposed  upon  recusant 
Jews  and  Christians.     On  the  one  hand,  rapine, 

*  S«e  Annalif  eto.,  p.  213. 


24 


The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam. 


plunder,  slavery,  tribute,  civil  disability;  on  the 
other,  security,  peace,  and  honour.  We  need 
not  be  surprised  that,  under  such  constraint, 
conquered  peoples  succumbed  before  Islam.  Nor 
were  the  temporal  inducements  to  conversion 
confined  to  the  period  during  which  the  Saracens 
were  engaged  in  spreading  Islam  by  force  of 
arms.  Let  us  come  down  a  couple  of  centuries 
from  the  time  of  Mahomet,  and  take  the  reign 
of  the  tolerant  and  liberal-minded  Sovereign, 
Al  Mamun. 

Amongst  the  philosophers  of  all  creeds  whom 
that  great  Cal:*ph  gathered  around  him  at  Bagh- 
dad, was  a  noble  Arab  of  the  Nestorian  faith, 
descended  from  the  kingly  tribe  of  the  Beni 
Kinda,  and  hence  called  Al  Kindy,  A  friend  of 
this  Eastern  Christian,  himself  a  member  of  the 
Royal  family,  invited  Al  Kindy  to  embrace 
Islam  in  an  epistle  enlarging  on  the  distin- 
guished rank  which,  in  virtue  of  his  descent, 
he  would  (if  a  true  believer)  occupy  at  court, 
and  the  other  privileges,  spiritual  and  material, 
social  and  conjugal,  which  he  would  enjoy.  In 
reply,  the  Christian  wrote  an  Apology  of  singular 
eloquence  and  power,  throwing  a  flood  of  light  on 
the  worldly  inducements  which,  even  at  that  com- 
paratively late  period,  abounded  in  a  Moslem  state 
to  promote  conversion  to  Islam.  Thus  Al  M&miin 
himself,  in  a  speech  delivered  before  his  council, 


Evidence  of 
h\  Kindy  in 
second 
century  of 
Uegira, 
A.i>.  830. 


The  Rapid  Spread  of  Islam. 


25 


characterizes  certain   of   his  courtiers  accused  as  speech  of 
secret  adherents  of  the  Zoroastrian  faith  : — 

Though  professing  Islam,  they  are  free  from  the  same.  This 
they  do  to  be  seen  of  me  ;  while  their  convictions,  I  am  well 
aware,  are  just  the  opposite  of  that  which  they  profess.  They 
belong  to  a  class  which  embrace  Islam,  not  from  any  love  of 
this  our  Faith,  but  thinking  thereby  to  gain  access  to  Our  court, 
and  share  in  the  honour,  wealth,  and  power  of  the  Realm. 
They  have  no  inward  persuasion  of  that  which  they  outwardly 
profess  } 

Affain,  speakinsr  of  the  various  classes  brousrht  converts 

f^)        '     r  <=>  *->         from  sordid 

over  to  Islam  by  sordid  and  unworthy  motives,  natives. 
Al  Kindy  says  : — 

Moreover,  there  are  the  idolatrous  races, — Magians  and  Je-ws, 
— low  people  aspiring  by  the  profession  of  Islam  to  raise  them- 
selves to  riches  and  power,  and  to  form  alliances  with  the 
families  of  the  learned  and  honourable.  There  are,  besides, 
hypocritical  men  of  the  world,  who  in  this  way  obtain  indul- 
gences in  the  matter  of  marriage  and  concubinage  which  are 
forbidden  to  them  by  the  Christian  faith.  Then  we  have  the 
dissolute  class  given  over  wholly  to  the  lusts  of  the  flesh.  And 
lastly,  there  are  those  who  by  this  means  obtain  a  more  secure 
and  easy  livelihood.* 

Before  leaving  this  part  of  our  subject,  it  may  ^nSSSth 
be  opportune  to  quote  a  few  more  passages  from  SSesiw 
Al  Kindy,   in   which    he    contrasts   the  induce-  Moslem* 
ments  that,  under  the  military  and  political  pre- 
dominance of  Islam,  promoted  its   rapid  spread, 
and   the  opposite  conditions  under  which  Chris- 
tianity made  progress,  slow  indeed  comparatively, 

'  The  Apology  of  Al  Kindy,  written  at  the  court  of  Al  Ma.mun 
A.H,  215  (a.d.  830),  with  an  Essay  on  its  age  and  authorship,  p. 
xii.    Smith  &  Elder,  1882.  •  Ibid.,  p.  34. 


'nuur^.' 


26 


The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam. 


The 

Christian 

Confessor 

and  the 

Moslem 

Martyr. 


but   sure   and   steady.      First,    he   compares   the 
Christian  confessor  with  the  Moslem  "  Martyr : " — 

I  marvel  much,  he  says,  that  ye  call  those  Martyrs  that  fall 
in  war.  Thou  hast  read,  no  doubt,  in  history  of  the  followers 
of  Christ  put  to  death  in  the  persecutions  of  the  kings  of  Persia  and 
elsewhere.  Say,  now,  which  are  the  more  worthy  to  be  called 
martyrs, — these,  or  thy  fellows  that  fall  fighting  for  the  world  and 
the  power  thereof  ?  How  diverse  were  the  barbarities  and  kinds  of 
death  inflicted  on  the  Christian  confessors  !  The  more  they  were 
slain,  the  more  rapidly  spread  the  faith  ;  in  place  of  one  sprang  up 
a  hundred.  On  a  certain  occasion,  when  a  great  multitude  had  been 
put  to  death,  one  at  court  said  to  the  king,  "  The  number  of  them 
increaseth,  instead  of  as  thou  thinkest  diminishing."  "How 
can  that  be  ?"  exclaimed  the  king.  "But  yesterday,"  replied 
the  courtier,  "thou  didst  put  such  and  such  a  one  to  death,  and 
lo,  there  were  converted  double  that  number ;  and  the  people 
say  that  a  man  appeared  to  the  confessors  from  heaven  strengthen- 
ing them  in  their  last  moments. "  Whereupon  the  king  himself 
was  converted.  In  those  days  men  thought  not  their  lives  dear 
unto  them.  Some  were  transfixed  while  yet  alive  ;  others  had 
their  limbs  cut  off  one  after  another  ;  some  were  cast  to  th«»  wild 
beasts,  and  others  burned  in  the  fire.  Such  continued  long  to 
be  the  fate  of  the  Christian  confessors.  No  parallel  is  found 
thereto  in  any  other  religion  ;  and  all  was  endured  with  con- 
stancy and  even  with  joy.  One  smiled  in  the  midst  of  his 
great  suffering.  "Was  it  cold  water,"  they  asked,  "that 
was  brought  unto  thee?"  "No,"  answered  the  sufferer,  "it 
was  one  like  a  youth  that  stood  by  me  and  anointed  my  wounds  ; 
and  that  made  me  smile,  for  the  pain  forthwith  depai-ted." 

Now  tell  me  seriously,  my  Friend,  which  of  the  two  hath  the 
best  claim  to  be  called  t^.  Martyr,  **  slain  in  the  ways  of  the 
Lord":  he  who  sun-endereth  his  life  rather  than  renounce  his 
faith  ;  who,  when  it  is  said, — Fall  down  and  worship  the  sun  and 
moon,  or  the  idols  of  silver  and  gold,  work  of  men's  hands, 
instead  of  the  true  God, — refuseth,  choosing  rather  to  give  up 
life,  abandon  wealth,  and  forego  even  wife  and  family ;  or  he 
that  goeth  foi-th,  ravaging  and  laying  waste,  plundering  and 
spoiling,  slaying  the  men,  carrying  away  their  children  into 
captivity,  and  ravishing  their  wives  and  maidens  in  his  unlawful 
embrace,  and  then  shall  call  it  "  Jeh^d  in  the  ways  of  the  Lord?" 


The  Rapid  Spread  of  Islam. 


27 


.  .  .  And  not  content  therewith,  instead  of  humbling  thyself 
before  the  Lord,  and  seeking  pardon  for  the  crime,  thou  sayest 
of  such  a  one  slain  in  the  war  that  *'  he  hath  earned  Paradise," 
and  thou  namest  him  "a  Martyr  in  the  ways  of  the  Lord  " !  ^ 

And   aarain,   contrastinar  the   spread  of   Islam,  AiKindy's 

.  .  ,    .  ,.  r  .  ,      contrast  of 

"its  rattling  quiver  and  its  glittering  sword,"  with  «ie  spread  of 
the  silent  progress  of  Christianity,  our  Apologist,  ^rf^tiSft^* 
after  dwelling  on  the  teaching  and  the  miracles 
of  the  Apostles,  writes : — 

They  published  their  message  by  means  of  these  miracles  ; 
and  thus  great  and  powerful  kings  and  philosophers  and  learned 
men  and  judges  of  the  earth  hearkened  unto  them,  without  the 
lash  or  rod,  with  neither  sword  nor  spear,  nor  the  advantages 
of  birth  or  "  Helpers  ; "  ^ — with  no  wisdom  of  this  world,  or 
eloquence  or  power  of  language,  or  subtlety  of  reason  ;  with  no 
worldly  inducement,  nor  yet  again  with  any  relaxation  of  the 
moral  law,  but  simply  at  the  voice  of  truth  enforced  by  miracles 
beyond  the  power  of  man  to  show.  And  so  there  came  over  to 
them  the  kings  and  great  ones  of  the  earth.  And  the  philosophers 
abandoned  their  systems,  with  all  their  wisdom  and  learning, 
and  betook  them  to  a  saintly  life,  giving  up  the  delights  of  this 
world  together  with  their  old-established  usages,  and  became 
followers  of  a  company  of  poor  men,  fishers  and  publicans,  who 
had  neither  name  nor  rank,  nor  any  claim  other  than  that  they 
were  obedient  to  the  command  of  the  Messiah — He  that  gave 
them  power  to  do  such  wonderful  works.  ^ 

And  yet  once  more,  comparing  the  Apostles  with  TheApo8ti«« 
the  military  chiefs  of  Islam,  Al  Kindy  proceeds: — 

After  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  gift  of  tongues, 
the  apostles  separated  each  to  the  country  to  which  he  was 
called.     They  wrote  out  in  every  tongue  the  Holy  Gospel,  and 


with  the 
chiefs  oi 
Islam. 


'  Apology^  p.  47,  et.  seq. 

•  Alluding  to  the  ^^  Ansdr,'  or  martial  "Helpers"  of  Mahomet  at 
Medina.  Throughout,  the  Apologist,  it  will  be  observed,  is  drawing 
a  contrast  with  the  means  used  for  the  spread  of  Islam. 

3  Apology,  p.  16. 


28 


lite  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam. 


the  story  and  teaching  of  Christ,  at  the  dictation  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  So  the  nations  drew  near  unto  them,  believing  their 
testimony  ;  and  giving  up  the  world  and  their  false  beliefs, 
they  embraced  the  Christian  faith  as  soon  as  ever  the  dawn  of 
truth,  and  the  light  of  the  good  tidings,  broke  in  upon  them.  Dis- 
tinguishing the  true  from  the  false,  and  error  from  the  right 
direction,  they  embraced  the  Gospel  and  held  it  fast  without 
doubt  or  wavering,  when  they  saw  the  wonderful  works  and 
signs  of  the  apostles,  and  their  lives  and  conversation  set  after 
the  holy  and  beautiful  example  of  our  Saviour,  the  traces 
whereof  remain  even  unto  the  present  day.  .  .  .  How  different 
this  from  the  life  of  thy  Master  (Mahomet)  and  his  Companions, 
who  ceased  not  to  go  forth  in  battle  and  rapine,  to  smite  with 
the  sword,  to  seize  the  little  ones,  and  ravish  the  wives  and 
maidens,  plundering  and  laying  waste,  and  carrying  the  people 
into  captivity.  And  thus  they  continue  unto  this  present  day, 
inciting  men  to  these  evil  deeds,  even  as  it  is  told  of  Omar  the 
Caliph.  "If  one  amongst  you,"  said  he,  "hath  a  heathen 
neighbour,  and  is  in  need,  let  him  seize  and  sell  him."  And 
many  such  thuigs  they  say  and  teach.  Look  now  at  the  lives 
of  Simon  and  PavJ,  who  went  about  healing  the  sick  and 
raising  the  dead,  by  the  name  of  Christ  our  Lord;  and  mark 
the  contrast.^ 


Such  are  the 
conclusions 
of  a  native 
of  Chaldeea. 


Ilindrancea 
or  iiiduce- 


inberent  m 
the  faith 
itself. 


Sucli  are  the  reflections  of  one  who  lived  at  a 
Mahometan  Court,  and  who,  moreover, — flourishing 
as  he  did  a  thousand  years  ago, — was  sufficiently 
near  the  early  spread  of  Islam  to  be  able  to  con- 
trast what  he  saw,  and  heard,  and  read,  of  the 
causes  of  its  success  with  those  of  the  Gospel,  and 
had  the  courage  to  confess  the  same. 

Apart,  now,  from  the  outward  and  extraneous 
aids  given  to  Islam  by  the  sword  and  by  the  civil 
arm,  I  will  inquire,  for  a  moment,  what  natural 
effect  the  teaching  of  Islam  itself  had  in  attracting 

■  Apology,]^,  b7. 


The  Rapid  Spread  of  Islam.  29 

or  repelling  mankind.  I  do  not  now  speak  of  any 
power  contained  in  the  truths  it  inculcated  to  con- 
vert to  Islam  hy  the  rousing  and  quickening  of 
spiritual  impulses ;  for  that  lies  beyond  my  present 
purpose, — which  is,  to  inquire  whether  there  is  not 
in  material  causes  and  secular  motives  enough  in 
themselves  to  account  for  success.  I  speak  rather 
of  the  effect  of  the  indulgences  granted  by  Islam, 
on  the  one  hand,  as  calculated  to  attract ;  and  of 
the  restraints  imposed  and  sacrifices  required,  on 
the  other,  as  calculated  to  repel.  How  far,  in  fact, 
did  there  exist  inducements  or  hindrances  to  its 
adoption  inherent  in  the  religion  itself  ? 

What  may  be  regarded  as  the  most  constant  Require 
and  irksome  of  the   obligations  of   Islam  is  the  isiam: 

Prayer. 

duty  of  prayer,  which  must  be  observed  at  stated 
intervals,  five  times  every  day,  with  the  contingent 
ceremony  of  lustration.  The  rite  consists  of  certain 
forms  and  passages  to  be  repeated  with  prescribed 
series  of  prostrations  and  genuflexions.  These 
must  be  repeated  at  the  right  times, — but  any- 
where, in  the  house  or  by  the  wayside,  as  well  as 
in  the  Mosque;  and  the  ordinance  is  obligatory 
in  whatever  state  of  mind  the  worshipper  may- 
be, or  however  occupied.  As  the  appointed  hour 
comes  round,  the  Moslem  is  bound  to  turn  aside 
to  pray, — so  much  so  that  in  Central  Asia  we  read 
of  the  police  driving  the  backward  worshipper  by 
the  lash  to  discharge  the  duty.     Thus,  with  the 


30 


The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam. 


mass  of  Mussulmans,  the  obligation  becomes  a  mere 
formal  ceremony,  and  one  sees  it  performed  any- 
where and  everywhere  by  the  whole  people,  like 
any  social  custom,  as  a  matter  of  course.  No 
doubt,  there  are  exceptions;  but  with  the  multi- 
tude it  does  not  involve  the  irksomeness  of  a 
spiritual  service,  and  so  it  sits  lightly  on  high 
and  low.  The  Friday  prayers  should  as  a  rule 
be  attended  in  the  Mosque;  but  neither  need 
there  be  much  devotion  there;  and  once  per- 
formed the  rest  of  the  day  is  free  for  pleasure 
or  for  business.^  The  prohibition  of  wine  is  a  re- 
striction which  was  severely  felt  in  the  early  days 
of  the  faith ;  but  it  was  not  long  before  the 
universal  sentiment  (though  eluded  in  some  quar- 
ters) supported  it.  The  embargo  upon  games  of 
chance  was  certainly  unpopular;  and  the  pro- 
hibition of  the  receipt  of  interest  was  also  an 
important  limitation,  tending  as  it  did  to  shackle 
the  freedom  of  mercantile  speculation ;  but 
they  have  been  partially  evaded  on  various 
pretexts.  The  Fast  throughout  the  month  of 
Ramz^n  was  a  severer  test;  but  even  this  lasts 
only  during  the  day;  and  at  night  from  sunset 
till  dawn,  all  restrictions  are  withdrawn,  not  only 


Prohibition 
of  wine, 
games  of 
chance,  and 
usury. 


Fast  of 
Ramzfin. 


*  I  am  not  here  comparing  the  value  of  these  obserrances  with 
those  of  other  religions.  I  am  inquiring  only  how  far  the  obligations 
of  Islam  may  be  held  to  involve  hardship  or  sacrifice  such  as  might 
have  retarded  the  progress  of  Islam  by  rendering  it  on  its  first 
introduction  unpopular. 


The  Rajpid  Spread 


iu  respect  of  food,  but  of  all  otherwise  lawful 
gratifications.^ 

There  is  nothiag,  therefore,  in  the  requirements  littiethatii 
and  ordinances  of  Islam,  excepting  the  Fast,  that  is  S^these*^ 

,  .  ordinances. 

very  irksome  to  humanity,  or  which,  as  involving 
any  material  sacrifice,  or  the  renunciation  of  the 
pleasures  or  indulgences  of  Hfe,  should  lead  a  man 
of  the  world  to  hesitate  in  embracing  the  new  faith. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  license  allowed  by  the  indulgences 
Goran  between  the  sexes, — at  least,  in  favour  of  the  matter 

.  of  wives  and 

the  male  sex, — is  so  wide,  that  for  such  as  have  the  concubines, 
means  and  the  desire  to  take  advantage  of  it,  there 
need  be  no  limit  whatever  to  sexual  indulgence.  It 
is  true  that  adultery  is  punishable  by  death,  and 
fornication  with  stripes.  But  fchen  the  Coran  gives 
the  believer  permission  to  have  four  wives  at  a 
time.  And  he  may  exchange  them;  that  is,  he 
may  divorce  them  at  pleasure,  takiog  others  in 
their  stead.^  And,  as  if  this  were  not  license 
enough,  the  divine  law  permits  the  believer  to 
consort  with  all  female  slaves  whom  he  may  be  the 
master  of, — such,  namely,  as  have  been  taken  in 
war,  or  have  been  acquired  by  gift  or  purchase. 
These  he  may  receive  into  his  harem  instead  of 
wives,  or  in  addition  to  them;  and  without  any 
limit  of  number  or  restraint  whatever,  he  is  at 
liberty  to  cohabit  with  them. 

'  See  Sura  ii.,  r.  88. 

*  Stwa^  ir.  18.    "  Exchange  "  is  the  word  used  in  the  Conm. 


32  The  Rise  and  Declim  of  Islam. 

Polygamy,  A  few  instances  taken  at  random  will  enable  the 
and  divoroB.*  reader  to  judge  how  the  indulgences  thus  allowed 
tafaS!^  °'  ^y  ^^®  religion  were  taken  advantage  of  in  the  early- 
days  of  Islam.  In  the  great  plague  which  devast- 
ated Syria  seven  years  after  the  Prophet's  death, 
Kh^lid,  the  Sword  of  God,  lost  forfij  sons.  Abdal 
Rahman,  one  of  the  "  Companions  **  of  Mahomet, 
had  issue  by  sixteen  wives,  not  counting  slave- 
girls.^  Moghira  ibn  Shoba,  another  "  Companion," 
and  Governor  of  Kufa  and  Bussorah,  had  in  his 
harem  eighty  consorts,  free  and  servile.  Coming 
closer  to  the  Prophet's  household,  we  find  that 
Mahomet  himself  at  one  period  had  in  his  harem 
no  fewer  than  nine  wives,  and  two  slave-girls. 
Of  his  grandson  Hasan,  we  read  that  his  vagrant 
passion  gained  for  him  the  unenviable  soubriquet 
of  The  Divorcer;  for  it  was  only  by  continually 
divorcing  his  consorts  that  he  could  harmonize 
his  craving  for  fresh  nuptials  with  the  require- 
ments of  the  divine  law,  which  limited  the 
number  of  his  free  wives  to  four.  We  are  told 
that,  as  a  matter  of  simple  caprice,  he  exercised 
the  power  of  divorce  seventy  (according  to  other 
traditions  ninety)  times.  When  the  leading  men 
complained  to  Aly  of  the  licentious  practice  of  his 
son,  his  only  reply  was,  that  the  remedy  lay  in  their 
own  hands,  of  refusing  Hasan  their  daughters  alto- 

'  Each  of  his  widows  had  100,000  golden  pieces  left  her.     Li/t  ^ 
U^homet,  p.  171. 


The  Rapid  Spread  of  Islam.  33 

gether.^  Such  are  the  material  inducements, — the 
"works  of  the  flesh,"  which  Islam  makes  lawful 
to  its  votaries,  and  which  promoted  thus  its  early- 
spread. 

Descending  now  to  modern  times,  we  still  find  that  Practice  in 
this  sexual  license  is  taken  advantage  of  more  or  less  times. 
in  different  countries  and  conditions  of  society.    The 
following  examples  are  simply  meant  as  showing 
to  what  excess  it  is  possible  for  the  believer  to 
carry  these  indulgenees,  under  the  sanction  of  his 
religion.     Of  the  Malays  in  Penang  it  was  written  The  Maiayi 
not  very  long   ago :    "  Young  men   of  thirty   to 
thirty- five  years  of   age  may   be   met  with  who 
have  had  from  fifteen  to  twenty  wives,  and  chil- 
dren by  several   of  them.     These   women  have 
been  divorced,  married  others,  and  had  children 
by  them."     Regarding  Egypt,  Lane  tells  us:  "I  ^^g^oj, 
have  heard  of  men  who  have  been  in  the  habit  e^^^^ 
of  marrying   a  new  wife  almost  every  month."  ^ 
Burkhardt  speaks  of  an  Arab,  forty-five  years  old, 
who  had  had  fifty  wives,  "so  that  he  must  have 
divorced  two  wives  and  married  two  fresh  ones  on 
the  average  every  year."     And  not  to  go  further 

'  "  These  divorced  wives  were  irrespective  of  his  concubines  or 
slave-girls,  upon  the  number  and  variety  of  whom  there  was  no 
limit  or  check  whatever." — Annals^  p.  418. 

»  Lane  adds,  "  There  are  many  men  in  this  country  who,  in  the 
course  of  ten  years,  have  married  as  many  as  twenty,  thirty,  or 
more  wives ;  and  women  not  far  advanced  in  age  have  been  wives 
to  a  dozen  or  more  husbands  successively.' 
entirely  within  the  religioui  sanction. 


34 


The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam. 


than  the  sacred  city  of  Mecca,  the  late  reigning 
Princess  of  Bhop^l  in  Central  India,  herself  an 
orthodox  follower  of  the  Prophet,  after  making  the 
pilgrimage  of  the  Holy  places,  writes  thus  : — 


The  Princess 
of  Bnop&l's 
accoTint  of 
Mecca, 


Islam 
sanctions  a 
license 
between  th« 
sexes  which 
Christianity 
forbids. 


Women  frequently  contract  as  many  as  ten  marriages,  and 
those  who  have  only  been  married  twice  are  few  in  number. 
If  a  woman  sees  her  husband  growing  old,  or  if  she  happen  to 
admire  anyone  else,  she  goes  to  the  Shereef  (the  spiritual  and 
civil  head  of  the  holy  city) ;  and  after  having  settled  the  matter 
with  him,  she  puts  away  her  husband,  and  takes  to  herself 
another,  who  is  perhaps  young,  good-looking,  and  rich.  In 
this  way  a  marriage  seldom  lasts  more  than  a  year  or  two. 

And  of  slave-girls,  the  same  high  and  impartial 
authority,  still  writing  of  the  Holy  city  and  of  her 
fellow  Moslems,  tells  us: — 

Some  of  the  women  (African  and  Georgian  girls)  are  taken 
in  marriage ;  and  after  that,  on  being  sold  again,  they  receive 
from  their  masters  a  divorce,  and  are  sold  in  their  houses, — 
that  is  to  say,  they  are  sent  to  the  purchaser  from  their  master's 
house  on  receipt  of  payment,  and  are  not  exposed  for  sale  in  the 
slave-market.  They  are  only  married  when  purchased  for  the 
first  time.  .  .  .  When  the  poorer  people  buy  (female)  slaves  they 
keep  them  for  themselves,  and  change  them  every  year  as  one 
would  replace  old  things  by  new  ;  but  the  women  who  have 
children  are  not  sold.^ 

What  I  desire  to  make  clear  is  the  fact  that 
such  things  may  he  practised  with  the  sanction 
of  the  Scripture  which  the  Moslem  holds   to   he 

*  Filgrimage  to  Mecca,  by  Her  Highness  the  reigning  Begiun  of 
Bhopal ;  translated  by  Mrs.  W.  Osborne,  1870,  pp.  82, 88.  Slave-girls 
cannot  be  married  until  freed  by  their  master.  What  Her  Highness 
tells  us  of  women  divorcing  their  husbands,  is  of  course  entirely  ultra 
vires,  and  shows  how  the  laxity  of  conjugal  relations  allowed  to  the 
male  sex  has  extended  itself  to  the  female  also,  and  that  in  a  city 
where,  if  anywhere,  we  should  have  expected  to  find  the  law  observed. 


Tfte  Rapid  Sjpread  of  Islam.  35 

divine,  and  that  these  same  indulgences  have  from 
the  first  existed  as  inducements  which  helped 
materially  to  forward  the  spread  of  the  faith.  I 
am  very  far,  indeed,  from  implying  that  excessive 
indulgence  in  polygamy  is  the  universal  state  of 
Moslem  society.  Happily  this  is  not  the  case. 
There  are  not  only  individuals,  but  tribes  and 
districts,  which,  either  from  custom  or  preference, 
voluntarily  restrict  the  license  given  them  in  the 
Goran ;  while  the  natural  influence  of  the  family, 
even  in  Moslem  countries,  has  an  antiseptic  ten- 
dency that  often  itself  tends  greatly  to  neutralise 
the  evil.^  Nor  am  I  seeking  to  institute  any  con- 
trast between  the  morals  at  large  of  Moslem 
countries  and  the  rest  of  the  world.  If  Christian 
nations  are  (as  with  shame  it  must  be  confessed) 
in  some  strata  of  society  immoral,  it  is  in  the  teeth 
of  their  Divine  law.  And  the  restrictions  of  that  oJ^gganitJ 
law  are  calculated,  and  in  the  early  days  of  Chris-  froSSmai 
tianity  did  tend,  in  point  of  fact,  to  deter  men,  ^  ^  ^^'^'^'^ 
devoted  to  the  indulgences  of  the  flesh,  from  em- 

'  In  India,  for  example,  there  are  Mahometan  races  among  whom 
monogamy,  as  a  rule,  prerails  by  custom,  and  individuals  exercising 
their  right  of  polygamy  are  looked  upon  with  disfavour.  On  the 
other  hand,  we  meet  occasionally  with  men  who  aver  that  rather 
against  their  will  (as  they  will  sometimes  rather  amusingly  say) 
they  have  been  forced  by  custom  or  family  influence  to  add  by 
polygamy  to  their  domestic  burdens.  In  Mahometan  countries, 
however,  when  we  hear  of  a  man  confining  himself  to  one  wife, 
it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  he  has  no  slaves  to  consort  with 
in  his  harem.  I  may  remark  that  slave-girls  have  by  Mahometan 
laws  no  conjugal  rights  whatever;  but  are  like  playthings  at  the 
•biolute  discretion  of  their  master. 


36  The  Rise  and  Decline  oj  Islam. 

bracing  the  faith.^  TLe  religion  of  Mahomet,  on 
the  other  hand,  gives  direct  sanction  to  the  sexual 
indulgences  we  have  been  speaking  of.  Thus  it 
panders  to  the  lower  instincts  of  humanity,  and 
makes  its  spread  the  easier.  In  direct  opposition 
to  the  precepts  of  Christianity,  it  "  makes  provision 
for  the  flesh  to  fulfil  the  lusts  thereof."  Hence 
Islam  the      Islam  has  been  well  called  by  its  own  votaries  the 

"EasT 

»y-  Easy  Way.     Once  more,  to  quote  Al  Kindy : — 

Thou  iBvitest  me  (says  our  Apologist  to  his  Friend)  into  the 
**  Ef^y  way  of  faith  and  practice."  Alas,  alas  !  for  our  Saviour 
in  the  Gospel  telleth  us,  ' '  When  ye  have  done  all  that  ye  are 
commanded,  say,  "We  are  unprofitable  servants  ;  we  have  but  done 
that  which  was  commanded  us."  Where  then  is  our  merit  ? 
The  same  Lord  Jesus  saith,  **  How  strait  is  the  road  which 
leadeth  unto  Ufe,  and  how  few  they  be  that  walk  therein  !  How 
wide  the  gate  that  leadeth  to  destruction,  and  how  many  there 
be  that  go  in  thereat!"  Different  this,  my  Friend,  from  the 
comforts  of  thy  wide  and  easy  gate,  and  the  facilities  for  enjoy- 
ing, as  thou  wouldst  have  me,  the  pleasures  offered  by  thy  faith 
in  wives  and  damsels  !  ^ 


w»y 


'  The  case  of  the  Corinthian  offender  is  much  in  point,  as  showing 
how  the  strict  discipline  of  the  Church  must  have  availed  to  make 
Christianity  unpopular  with  the  mere  worldling. 

'  Apology^  p.  51.    I  repeat  that,  in  the  remarks  I  have  made 

under  this  head,  no  comparison  is  sought  to  be  drawn  betwixt  the 

morality  of  nominally  Christian  and  Moslem  peoples.     On  thii 

subject  I  may  be  allowed  to  quote  from  what  I  have  said  elsewhere : 

Laarity  «  The  Itloslem  advocate  will  urge  .  .  the  social  evil  as  the  necessary 

nomiifal  result  of  inexorable  monogamy.    The  Cora,n  not  only  denounces  any 

Christians ;      illicit  laxity  between  the  sexes  in  the  severest  terms,  but  exposes  the 

transgressor  to  condign  punishment.     For  this  reason,  and  because 

the  conditions  of  what  is  licit  are  so  accommodating  and  wide,  a 

certain  negative  virtue  (it  can  hardly  be  called  continence  or  chastity) 

pervades  Mahometan  society,  in  contrast  with  which  the  gross  and 

systematic  immorality  in  certain  parts  of  every  European  community 

may  be  regarded  by  the  Christian  with  shame  and  confusion.    In 


/ 
The  Spread  of  Islam  Stayed.  37 


n. 

Why  the  Spread  op  Islam  was  Stayed. 

Having  thus  traced  the  rapid  early  spread  of  J^^^nary 
Islam  to  its  proper  source,  I  proceed  to  the  remain-  ^J^f' 
ing  topics,  namely,  the  causes  which  have  checked  So^iida 
its  further  extension,  and  those  likewise  which  have 
depressed  the  followers  of  this  religion  in  the  scale 
of  civilization.     I  shall  take  the  former  first, — just 
remarking  here  in  respect  of  tho  latter,  that  the 
depression  of  Islam  is  itself  one  of  the  causes 
which  retard  the  expansion  of  the  faith. 

As  the  first  spread  of  Islam  was  due  to  the  ^gei^ 
sword,   so  when  the   sword   was  sheathed  Islam  ^n*S?y,to 
ceased  to  spread.     The  apostles  and  missionaries  of  cSuading 
Islam  were,  as  we  have  seen,  the  martial  trihes  of 


a  purely  Mahometan  land,  however  low  may  he  the  general  level  of 

moral  feeling,  the  still  lower  depths  of  fallen  humanity  are  unknown. 

The  "  social  evil,"  and  intemperance,  prevalent  in  Christian  lands, 

are  the  strongest  weapons  in  the  armoury  of  Islam.    We  point,  and 

justly,  to  the  higher  morality  and  civilization  of  those  who  do 

observe  the  precepts  of  the  Gospel,  to  the  stricter  unity  and  virtue 

which  cement  the  family,  and  to  the  elevation  of  the  sex ;  but  in 

vain,  while  the  example  of  our  great  cities,  and  too  often  of  our 

representatives  abroad,  belies  the  argument-    And  yet  the  argument 

is  sound.    For,  in  proportion  as  Christianity  exercises  her  legitimate   Vanishes  in 

influence,  vice  and  intemperance  will  wane  and  vanish,  and  the   cimstianSy 

higher  morality  pervade  the  whole  body;  whereas  in  Islam  the   exercises 

deteriorating  influences  of  polygamy,  divorce,  and  concubinage,   ^^^pg 

have  been  stereotyped  for  all  time." — The  Coran:  its  Composition 

and  Teaching,  and  the  Testimony  it  bears  to  the  Eoly  Scriptures, 

p.  60. 


38  The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam. 


Arabia;  that  is  to  say,  tlie  grand  miKtary  force 
organized  by  Omar,  and  by  him  launched  upon 
the  surrounding  nations.  Gorged  with  the 
plunder  of  the  world,  these  beganj  after  a  time, 
to  settle  on  their  lees,  and  to  mingle  with  the 
ordinary  population.  So  soon  as  this  came  to 
pass,  they  lost  the  fiery  zeal  which  at  the  first 
had  made  them  irresistible.  By  the  second  and 
third  centuries,  the  Arabs  had  disappeared  as  the 
standing  army  of  the  Caliphate,  or,  in  other  words,  as 
a  body  set  apart  for  the  dissemination  of  the  faith. 
The  crusading  spirit,  indeed,  ever  and  anon  burst 
forth, — and  it  still  bursts  forth,  as  opportunity  oflfers, 
— simply  for  the  reason  that  this  spirit  pervades  the 
Coran,  and  is  ingrained  in  the  creed.  But  with  the 
special  agency  created  and  maintained  during  the 
first  ages  for  the  spread  of  Islam,  the  incentive  of 
crusade  ceased  as  a  distinctive  missionary  spring  of 
action,  and  degenerated  into  the  common  lust  of 
conquest  which  we  meet  with  in  the  world  at  large. 
With  The  extension  of  Islam  depending  upon  military 

cessation  of  j.  o      x  ./ 

rSTceased  succcss,  stoppcd  whorevcr  that  was  checked.  The 
to  spread.  religion  advaucod  or  retired,  speaking  broadly,  as 
the  armed  predominance  made  head  or  retroceded. 
Thus  the  tide  of  Moslem  victory,  rushing  along 
the  coast  of  Africa,  extinguished  the  seats  of 
European  civilization  on  the  Mediterranean,  over- 
whelmed Spain,  and  was  rapidly  advancing  north, 
when  the  onward  wave  was  stemmed  at  Tours; 


The  Spread  of  Islam  Stayed, 


and  so  with  the  arms,  the  faith  also,  of  Islam  was 
driven  back  into  Spain,  and  bounded  by  the 
Pyrenees.  So  likewise,  the  hold  which  the  religion 
seized  both  of  Spain  and  Sicily  came  to  an  end 
with  Mussulman  defeat.  It  is  true  that  when  once 
long  and  firmly  rooted,  as  in  India  and  China, 
Islam  may  survive  the  loss  of  military  power,  and 
even  flourish.  But  it  is  equally  true,  that  in  no 
single  country  has  Islam  been  planted,  nor  has  it 
anywhere  materially  spread,  saving  under  the 
banner  of  the  Crescent,  or  the  political  ascendancy 
of  some  neighbouring  state.  Accordingly,  we  find 
that,  excepting  some  barbarous  zones  in  Africa 
which  have  been  raised  thereby  a  step  above  the 
grovelling  level  of  fetishism,  the  faith  has  in 
modern  times  made  no  advance  worth  mentioning.  ^ 
From  the  Jewish  and  Christian  religions  there  has 

'  Much  loose  assertion  has  been  made  regarding  the  progress  of  Islam    Alleged 
in  Africa;  but  I  have  found  no  proof  of  it  apart  fromanned,  political,   igj'^^^'* 
or  trading  influence,  dogged  too  often  by  the  slave  trade ; — to  a  great   Africa, 
extent  a  social  rather  than  a  religious  movement,  and  raising  the 
fetish  tribes  (haply  without  intemperance)  into  a  somewhat  higher 
stage  of  semi-barbarism.    I  have  met  nothing  which  would  touch 
the  argument  in  the  text.    The  following  is  the  testimony  of  Dr. 
Koelle,  the  best  possible  witness  on  the  subject : 

"  It  is  true,  the  Mohammedan  nations  in  the  interior  of  Africa, 
namely,  the  Bornuese,  Mandengas,  Pulas,  etc.,  invited  by  the  weak 
and  defenceless  condition  of  the  surrounding  negro  tribes,  still 
occasionally  make  conquests,  and  after  subduing  a  tribe  of  Pagans, 
by  almost  exterminating  its  male  population,  and  committing  the 
most  horrible  atrocities,  impose  upon  those  that  remain  the  creed 
of  Islam;  but  keeping  in  view  the  whole  of  the  Mohammedan 
world,  this  fitful  activity  reminds  one  only  of  those  green  branches 
sometimes  seen  on  trees,  already,  and  for  long,  decayed  at  the  core 
from  age." — Food  for  Reflection^  p.  37. 


40 


The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam. 


(again  speaking  broadly)  been  no  secession  what- 
ever to  Islam  since  the  wave  of  Saracen  victor}'  was 
stayed,  excepting  by  the  force  of  arms.  Even  in  the 
palmy  days  of  the  Abbasside  Caliphs,  our  Apologist 
could  challenge  his  adversary  to  produce  a  single  con- 
version otherwise  than  by  reason  of  some  powerful 
material  inducement.     Here  is  his  testimony : — 


Al  Kindy's 
challenge  to 
produce  a 
Christian 
convert  to 
Islam  apart 
from 

material  in- 
ducements. 


Now  tell  me,  hast  thou  ever  seen,  my  Friend  (the  Lord  be 
gracious  tinto  thee  !)  or  ever  heard,  of  a  single  person  of  soimd 
mind— any  one  of  learning  and  experience,  and  acquainted  with 
the  Scriptures — renouncing  Christianity  otherwise  than  for  some 
worldly  object  to  be  reached  only  through  thy  religion,  or  for 
some  gratification  withheld  by  the  faith  of  Jesus  ?  Thou  wilt 
find  none.  For,  excepting  the  tempted  ones,  all  continue  sted- 
fast  in  their  faith,  secure  under  our  most  Gracious  Sovereign, 
in  the  profession  of  their  own  religion.^ 


III. 

Low  Position  of  Islam  in  the  Scale  of 
Civilization. 


Social  and 

intellectual 

depresiion. 


Islam 

intended  for 
the  Arabs. 


I  PASS  on  to  consider  why  Mahometan  nations 
occupy  so  low  a  position,  halting  as  almost  every- 
where they  do  in  the  march  of  social  and  intellectual 
development. 

The  reason  is  not  far  to  find.  Islam  was  meant 
for  Arabia,  not  for  the  world ; — ^for  the  Arabs  of 
the  seventh  century,  not  for  the  Arabs  of  all  time  ; 
and  being  such,  and  nothing  more,  its  claim  of 

^  Apologift  p.  84. 


The  Decadence  of  Islam.  41 

divine  origin  renders  change  or  development  im- 
possible. It  has  within  itself  neither  the  germ  of 
natural  growth,  nor  the  lively  spring  of  adaptation. 
Mahomet  declared  himself  a  prophet  to  the 
Arabs  ;^  and  however  much  in  his  later  days 
he  may  have  contemplated  the  reformation  of 
other  religions  beyond  the  Peninsula,  or  the  further 
spread  of  his  own  (which  is  doubtful),  still 
the  rites  and  ceremonies,  the  customs  and  the 
laws  enjoined  upon  his  people,  were  suitable  (if 
suitable  at  all)  for  the  Arabs  of  that  day,  and  in 
many  respects  for  them  alone.  Again,  the  code 
containing  these  injunctions,  social  and  ceremonial, 
as  well  as  doctrinal  and  didactic,  is  embodied  with 
every  particularity  of  detail,  as  part  of  the  divine 
law,  in  the  Cor&n  ;  and  so  defying,  as  sacrilege,  all 
human  touch,  it  stands  unalterable  for  ever.  From 
the  stiff  and  rigid  shroud  in  which  it  is  thus 
swathed,  the  relis:ion  of  Mahomet  cannot  emerge,  wants  tne 

.  .       faculty  of 

It  has  no  plastic  power  beyond  that  exercised  in  adaDtatiou 
its  earliest  days.  Hardened  now  and  inelastic,  it  can 
neither  adapt  itself,  nor  yet  shape  its  votaries, 
nor  even  suffer  them  to  shape  themselves,  to  the 
varying  circumstances,  the  wants  and  developments 
of  mankind. 

We  may  iudge  of  the  local  and  inflexible  cha-  Local 

''<''->  ^  ceremonies; 

racter  of  the  faith  from  one  or  two  of  its  ceremonies.  Pilgrimage. 
To  perform  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  and  Mount 

•  Annuls,  pp.  61,  224. 


42  The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam. 

Arafat,  with  the  slaying  of  victims  at  Mina,  and 
the  worship  of  the  Kdaba,  is  an  ordinance  obliga- 
tory (with  the  condition  only  that  they  have  the 
means)  on  all  believers,  who  are  bound  to  make 
the  journey  even  from  the  furthest  ends  of  the 
earth;  —  an  ordinance  intelligible  enough  in  a 
local  worship,  but  unmeaning  and  impracticable 
when  required  of  a  world-wide  religion.  The 
Fast  of         same  may  be  said  of  the  Fast  of  Ramz^n.     It  is 

RamzSn. 

prescribed  in  the  Cordn  to  be  observed  by  all  with 
undeviating  strictness,  during  the  whole  day,  from 
earliest  dawn  till  sunset,  throughout  the  month,  with 
specified  exemptions  for  the  sick,  and  penalties  for 
every  occasion  on  which  it  is  broken.  The  com- 
mand, imposed  thus  with  an  iron  rule  on  male  and 
female,  young  and  old,  operates  with  excessive 
inequality  in  different  seasons,  lands,  and  climates. 
However  suitable  to  countries  near  the  equator, 
where  the  variations  of  day  and  night  are  imma- 
terial, the  Fast  becomes  intolerable  to  those  who 
are  far  removed  either  towards  the  north  or  the 
south  ;  and,  still  closer  to  the  poles,  where  night 
merges  into  day,  and  day  into  night,  impracticable. 
Again,  with  the  lunar  year  (itself  an  institution 
divinely  imposed),  the  month  of  E-amzan  travels  in 
the  third  of  a  century  from  month  to  month  over 
the  whole  cycle  of  a  year.  The  Fast  was  estab- 
lished at  a  time  when  Kamzan  fell  in  winter,  and 
the  change   of  season  was  probably  not  foreseen 


The  Decadence  of  Islam.  43 

by  the  Prophet.  But  the  result  is  one  which, 
under  some  conditions  of  time  and  place,  involves 
the  greatest  hardship.  For,  when  the  Fast  comes 
round  to  summer,  the  trial  in  a  sultry  climate,  like 
that  of  the  huming  Indian  plains,  of  passing  the 
whole  day  without  a  morsel  of  bread  or  a  drop  of 
water,  becomes  to  many  the  occasion  of  intense 
suffering.  Such  is  the  effect  of  the  Arabian 
legislator's  attempt  at  circumstantial  legislation  in 
matters  of  religious  ceremonial. 

Nearly  the  same  is  the  case  with  all  the  religious 
obligations  of  Islam,  prayer,  lustration,  etc.  But  ^^^^ 
although  the  minuteness  of  detail  with  which  these  ow^ng'to*" 
are  enjoined,  tends  towards  that  jejune  and  formal  be^in^th* 
worship  which  we  witness  everywhere  in  Moslem 
lands,  still  there  is  nothing  in  these  observances 
themselves  which  (religion  apart)  should  lower  the 
social  condition  of  Mahometan  populations,  and 
prevent  their  emerging  from  that  normal  state  of 
semi-barbarism  and  imcivilized  depression  in  which 
we  find  all  Moslem  peoples.  For  the  cause  of  this 
we  must  look  elsewhere;  and  it  may  be  recognized, 
without  doubt,  in  the  relations  established  by  the 
Goran  between  the  sexes.  Polygamy,  divorce, 
servile  concubinage,  and  the  veil,  are  at  the  root  of 
Moslem  decadence. 

In  respect  of  married  life,  the  condition  allotted  BepreaOm 

^  .  .  .        ofthe 

by  the  Coran   to  woman  is  that  of    an  inferior  femaOei 
dependent  creature,  destined  only  for  the  servicej. 


44  The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam. 

of  lier  master,  liable  to  be  cast  adrift  without  tlie 
assignment  of  a  single  reason,  or  the  notice  of  a 
single  hour.  While  the  husband  possesses  the 
power  of  divorce,  absolute,  immediate,  unquestioned, 
QO  privilege  of  a  corresponding  nature  has  been 
reserved  for  the  wife.  She  hangs  on,  however 
unwilling,  neglected,  or  superseded,  the  perpetual 
slave  of  her  lord,  if  such  be  his  will.  When 
actually  divorced,  she  can,  indeed,  claim  her  dower, 
— her  hirey  as  it  is  called  in  the  too  plain  language 
of  the  Coran ;  but  the  knowledge  that  the  wife  can 
make  this  claim  is  at  the  best  a  miserable  security 
against  capricious  taste ;  and  in  the  case  of  bond- 
maids even  that  imperfect  check  is  wanting.  The 
power  of  divorce  is  not  the  only  power  that  may  be 
exercised  by  the  tyrannical  husband.  Authority 
to  confine  and  to  heat  his  wives  is  distinctly  vested 
in  his  discretion.^  "  Thus  restrained,  secluded,  de- 
graded, the  mere  minister  of  enjoyment,  liable  at 
the  caprice  or  passion  of  the  moment  to  be  turned 
adrift,  it  would  be  hard  to  say  that  the  position  of 
a  wife  was  improved  by  the  code  of  Mahomet."^ 
Divorce.  Evcu  if  the  privilege  of  divorce  and  marital  tyranny 
be  not  exercised,  the  knowledge  of  its  existence 
as  a  potential  right  must  tend  to  abate  the  self- 
respect,  and  in  like  degree  to  weaken  the  influence 
of  the  sex,  impairing  thus  the  ameliorating  and 
civilizing  power  which  she  was  meant  to  exercise 
>  Sura  IV.  V.  33.  *  Life  of  Mahomet y  p.  348. 


The  Decadence  of  Islam. 


45 


upon  mankind.     And  the  evil  has  been  stereotyped 
by  the  Goran  for  all  time. 

I  must  quote  one  more  passage  from  Principal  Principal 
Fairbairn   on   the  lowering  influence  of  Moslem  homeuS^" 

.  under  Islam. 

domestic  life: 

The  god  of  Mohammed  .  .  .  "spares  the  sins  the  Arab  loves. 
A  religion  that  does  not  purify  the  home  cannot  regenerate  the 
race  ;  one  that  depraves  the  home  is  certain  to  deprave  humanity. 
Motherhood  is  to  be  sacred  if  manhood  is  to  be  honourable.  Spoil 
the  wife  of  sanctity,  and  for  the  man  the  sanctities  of  life  have 
perished.  And  so  it  has  been  vrith  Islam.  It  has  reformed  and 
lifted  savage  tribes  ;  it  has  deprived  and  barbarised  civilized 
nations.  At  the  root  of  its  fairest  culture,  a  worm  has  ever 
lived  that  has  caused  its  blossoms  soon  to  wither  and  die.  "Were 
Mahomet  the  hope  of  man,  then  his  state  were  hopeless ;  before 
him  could  only  be  retrogression,  tyranny,  and  despair."^ 

Still  worse  is  the  influence  of  servile  concubinage,  pemoraiiz- 
Tlie  following  is  the  evidence  of  a  shrewd  and  able  S^serviil^** 
observer  in  the  East : 

All  Zenana  life  must  be  bad  for  men  at  all  stages  of  their 
existence.  ...  In  youth,  it  must  be  ruin  to  be  petted  and 
spoiled  by  a  company  of  submissive  slave-girls.  In  manhood, 
it  is  nd  less  an  evil  that  when  a  man  enters  into  private  life, 
his  affections  should  be  put  up  to  auction  among  foolish,  fond 
competitors  full  of  mutual  jealousies  and  slanders.  We  are 
not  left  entirely  to  conjecture  aa  to  the  effect  of  female  influence 
on  home  life,  when  it  is  exerted  under  these  unenlightened 
and  demoralizing  conditions.  That  is,  plainly,  an  element  lying 
at  the  root  of  all  the  most  important  features  that  differentiate 
progress  from  stagnation.  * 

Such  are  the  institutions  which  ffnaw  at  the  root  petenorat- 

"  ingmflnenoe 

of  Islam,  and  prevent  the  growth  of  freedom  and  estlbiSd 

»  The  City  of  Ood,  p.  97.    Hodder  &  Stoughton,  1883. 
"  The  Turks  in  India,  by  H.  Qt.  Keene,  o.s.i.    Allen  &  Company, 
1879. 


between  tba 
sexes. 


46  The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam. 

civilization.  "By  these  tlie  unity  of  the  household 
is  fatally  broken,  and  the  purity  and  virtue  of  the 
family  tie  weakened ;  the  vigour  of  the  dominant 
classes  is  sapped ;  the  body  politic  becomes  weak 
and  languid,  excepting  for  intrigue ;  and  the  throne 
itself  liable  to  fall  a  prey  to  a  doubtful  or  contested 
succession,"^ — contested  by  the  progeny  of  the 
various  rivals  crowded  into  the  royal  harem.  From 
the  palace  downwards  polygamy  and  servile  con- 
cubinage lower  the  moral  tone,  loosen  the  ties  of 
domestic  life,  and  hopelessly  depress  the  people. 
The  VeiL  Nor  is  the  Ycil — albeit  under  the  circumstances 

a  necessary  precaution — less  detrimental,  though 
in  a  different  way,  to  the  interests  of  Moslem 
society.  This  strange  custom  owes  its  origin 
to  the  Prophet's  jealous  temperament.  It  is  for- 
bidden in  the  Coran  for  women  to  appear  unveiled 
before  any  member  of  the  other  sex,  with  \_ie 
exception  of  certain  near  relatives  of  specified  pro- 
pinquity.^ And  this  law,  coupled  with  other  restric- 
tions of  the  kind,  has  led  to  the  imposition  of  the 
Boorka  or  Furdah  (the  dress  which  conceals  the 
person,  and  the  veil),  and  to  the  greater  or  less 
seclusion  of  the  Harem  and  Zenana. 

•  Annals,  etc.,  p.  457. 

»  See  Sura  xxiv.  v.  32.  Tlie  excepted  relations  are :  "  Husbands, 
fathers,  husbands'  fathers,  sons,  husbands'  sons,  brothers,  brothers' 
sons,  sisters'  sons,  the  captives  which  their  right  hands  possess, 
such  men  as  attend  them  and  hare  no  need  of  women,  or  children 
below  the  age  of  puberty  " 


The  Decadence  of  Islam.  47 

This  ordinance,  and  the  practices  flowing  from  it,  Society 
must  survive,  more  or  less,  so  long  as  the  Cor^n  the^      ^ 

withdrawal 

remains  the  rule  of  faith.  It  may  appear,  at  first  f  ^^\ 
sight,  a  mere  negative  evil, — a  social  custom  com- 
paratively harmless ;  hut  in  truth  it  has  a  more 
debilitating  effect  upon  the  Moslem  race  perhaps 
than  anything  else,  for  by  it  Woman  is  totally  with- 
drawn from  her  proper  place  in  the  social  circle. 
She  may,  indeed,  in  the  comparatively  laxer  license 
of  some  lands,  be  seen  flitting  along  the  streets 
or  driving  in  her  carriage ;  but,  even  so,  it  is  like 
one  belonging  to  another  world, — veiled,  shrouded, 
and  cut  off  from  intercourse  with  those  around 
her.  Free  only  in  the  retirement  of  her  own 
secluded  apartments,  she  is  altogether  shut  out 
from  her  legitimate  sphere  in  the  duties  and 
enjoyments  of  life.  But  the  blight  on  the  sex 
itself,  from  this  unnatural  reg^alation,  sad  as  it  is, 
must  be  regarded  as  a  minor  evil.  The  mischief 
extends  beyond  her.  The  tone  and  framework  of 
society,  as  it  came  from  the  Maker's  hands,  are 
altered,  damaged,  and  deteriorated.  From  the  veil 
there  flows  this  double  injury.  The  bright,  refining, 
softening  influence  of  woman  is  withdrawn  from  the 
outer  world ;  and  social  life,  wanting  the  gracious 
influences  of  the  female  sex,  becomes,  as  we  see 
throughout  Moslem  lands,  forced,  hard,  unnatural, 
and  morose.  Moreover,  the  Mahometan  nations,  J^uncated'" 
for  all  purposes  of  common  elevation,  and  for  all  ^o^eS®  °' 


raedan 
society 


48  The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam. 

efforts  of  philantliropy  and  liberty,  are  (as  they 
live  in  public  and  beyond  the  inner  recesses  of 
tbeir  homes)  but  a  truncated  and  imperfect  ex- 
hibition of  humanity.  They  are  wanting  in  one 
The  defects    of  its  coustitueut  parts,  the  better  half,  the  human- 

of  Moham-  ^  .  . 

izing  and  the  softening  element.  And  it  would 
be  against  the  nature  of  things  to  suppose  that  the 
body  thus  shorn  and  mutilated,  can  possess  in  itself 
the  virtue  and  power  of  progress,  reform,  and 
elevation.  The  link  connecting  the  family  with 
social  and  public  life  is  detached,  and  so  neither  is 
en  rapport,  as  it  should  be,  with  the  other.  Eeforms 
fail  to  find  entrance  into  the  family,  or  to  penetrate 
the  domestic  soil,  where  alone  they  could  take  root, 
grow  into  the  national  mind,  live  and  be  per- 
petuated. Under  such  conditions  the  seeds  of 
civilization  refuse  to  germinate.  No  real  growth 
is  possible  in  free  and  useful  institutions,  nor  any 
permanent  and  healthy  force  in  those  great  move- 
ments which  elsewhere  tend  to  uplift  the  masses 
and  elevate  mankind.  There  may,  it  is  true,  be 
some  advance,  from  time  to  time,  in  science  and 
in  material  prosperity  ;  but  the  social  groundwork 
for  the  same  is  wanting,  and  the  people  surely 
relapse  into  the  semi-barbarism  forced  upon  them 
by  an  ordinance  which  is  opposed  to  the  best  in- 
stincts of  humanity.  Sustained  progress  becomes 
impossible.  Such  is  the  outcome  of  an  attempt 
to  improve  upon  nature,  and  banish  Woman,  the 


The  Decadence  of  Islam.  49 

help-meet  of  man,  from  tlie  position  assigned  by- 
God  to  her  in  the  world. 

At  the  same  time  I  am  not  prepared  to  say  that  Jefesi!/^" 
in  view  of  the  laxity  of  the  conjugal  relations  Sfngcir- 
inherent  in  the  institutions  of  Islam,  some  such 
social  check  as  that  of  the  Veil  (apart  from  the 
power  to  confine  and  castigate)  is  not  needed  for 
the  repression  of  license  and  the  maiatenance  of 
outward  decency.  There  is  too  much  reason  to 
apprehend  that  free  social  intercourse  might  other- 
wise he  dangerous  to  morality  under  the  code  oi 
Mahomet,  and  with  the  example  before  men 
and  women  of  the  early  worthies  of  Islam.  So 
long  as  the  sentiments  and  habits  of  the  Moslem 
world  remain  as  they  are,  some  remedial  oi 
preventive  measure  of  the  kind  seems  indispens- 
able. But  the  peculiarity  of  the  Mussulman  polity^ 
as  we  have  seen,  is  such  that  the  sexual  laws  and 
institutions  which  call  for  restrictions  of  the  kind, 
as  founded  on  the  Coran  are  incapable  of  change ; 
they  must  co-exist  with  the  faith  itself,  and  last 
while  it  lasts.  So  long,  then,  as  this  polity  prevails, 
the  depression  of  woman,  as  well  as  her  exclusion 
from  the  social  circle,  must  injure  the  health  and 
vitality  of  the  body  politic,  impair  its  purity  and 
grace,  paralyze  vigour,  retard  progress  in  the  direc- 
tion of  freedom,  philanthropy,  and  moral  elevation, 
and  generally  perpetuate  the  normal  state  of 
Mahometan  peoples,  as  one  of  semi-barbarism. 


50  The  Rise  aivl  Jjrdhie  of  Islam. 

R^apituia-        To  recapitulate,  we  have  seen  : — 

First.  That  Islam  was  propagated  mainly  by  the 
sword.  With  the  tide  of  conquest  the  religion 
went  forward ;"  where  conquest  was  arrested  it 
made  no  advance  heyond ;  and  at  the  withdrawal 
of  the  Moslem  arms  the  faith  also  commonly 
retired. 

Second.  The  inducements,  whether  material  or 
spiritual,  to  embrace  Islam,  have  proved  insufficient 
of  themselves  (speaking  broadly)  to  spread  the 
faith,  in  the  absence  of  the  sword,  and  without  the 
influence  of  the  political  or  secular  amL 

Third.  The  ordinances  of  Islam,  those  especially 
having  respect  to  the  female  sex,  have  induced  an 
inherent  weakness,  which  depresses  the  social 
system,  and  retards  its  progress. 

Contrast  ^^  ^^®  reader  should  have  followed  me  in  the 

oiristianity    argument  by  which  these  conclusions  have  been 

reached,  the  contrast  with  the  Christian  faith  has  no 

doubt  been  suggesting  itself  at  each  successive  step. 

I  hnstianity        Christianity,  as  Al  Kindy  has  so  forcibly  put  it, 

')'?Spag.tcd     gained  a  firm  footing  in  the  world  without  the 

sword,    and  without  any  aid  whatever  from  the 

secular  arm.     So  far  from  having  the  countenance 

of  the  State,  it  triumphed  in  spite  of  opposition, 

persecution,  and  discouragement.     "My  kingdom," 

said  Jesus,  *  is  not  of  this  world.     If  My  kingdom 


)Ot 
110 

i)y  force, 


The  Decadence  of  Islam.  5 1 

were  of  this  world,  then  would  My  servants  fight 
that  I  should  not  he  delivered  to  the  Jews ;  but 
now  is  My  kingdom  not  from  hence.  .  .  For  this 
end  came  I  into  the  world,  that  I  should  hear 
witness  to  the  truth.  Every  one  that  is  of  the 
truth,  heareth  My  voice."  ^ 

The  religion  itself,  in  its  early  days,  offered  no  Nor  by 
worldly  attractions  or  indulgences.  It  was  not,  ^ucements. 
like  Islam,  an  "Easy  way.**  Whether  in  with- 
drawal from  social  observances  deeply  tainted  with 
idolatry,  the  refusal  to  participate  in  sacrificial 
ceremonies  insisted  on  by  the  rulers,  or  in  the 
renunciation  of  indulgences  inconsistent  with  a 
saintly  life,  the  Christian  profession  required  self- 
denial  at  every  step. 

But    otherwise    the    teaching    of    Christianity  AdaptiTe 

principles 

nowhere  interfered  with  the  civil  institutions  of  andpiastio 

faculty  of 

the  countries  into  which  it  penetrated,  or  with  any  Christianity 
social  customs  or  practices  that  were  not  in  them- 
selves immoral  or  idolatrous.  It  did  not,  indeed, 
neglect  to  guide  the  Christian  life.  But  it  did  so  by 
the  enunciation  of  principles  and  rules  of  wide  and 
far-reaching  application.  These,  no  less  than  the 
injunctions  of  the  Oor&n,  served  amply  for  the 
exigencies  of  the  day.  But  they  have  done  a  vast 
deal  more.  They  have  proved  themselves  capable 
of  adaptation  to  the  most  advanced  stages  of 
social  development  and  intellectual  elevation.    And 

»  John  xyiii.  36,  37. 


Examples: 
Slayery. 


52  The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam. 

what  is  infinitely  more,  it  may  be  claimed  for  the 
lessons  embodied  in  the  Gospel  that  they  have 
been  themselves  promotive,  if  indeed  they  have 
not  oeen  the  immediate  cause,  of  all  the  most 
important  reforms  and  philanthropies  that  now 
prevail  in  Christendom.  The  principles  thus  laid 
down  contained  germs  endowed  with  the  power  of 
life  and  growth  which,  expanding  and  flourishing, 
slowly  it  may  be,  but  surely,  have  at  the  last  home 
the  fruits  we  see. 

Take,  for  example,  the  institution  of  Slavery.  It 
prevailed  in  the  Eoman  Empire  at  the  intrjduction 
of  Christianity,  as  it  did  in  Arabia  at  the  rise  of 
Islam.  In  the  Moslem  code,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
practice  has  been  perpetuated.  Slavery  must  be 
held  permissible  so  long  as  the  CorsLn  is  taken  to 
be  the  rule  of  faith.  The  divine  sanction  thus  im- 
pressed upon  the  institution,  and  the  closeness  with 
which  by  law  and  custom  it  intermingles  with 
social  and  domestic  life,  make  it  impossible  for  any 
Mahometan  people  to  impugn  slavery  as  contrary 
to  sound  morality,  or  for  any  body  of  loyal  believers 
to  advocate  its  abolition  upon  the  ground  of  prin- 
ciple. There  are,  moreover,  so  many  privileges 
and  gratifications  accruing  to  the  higher  classes 
from  its  maintenance,  that  (excepting  under  the 
strong  pressure  of  European  diplomacy)  no  sincere 
and  hearty  effort  cail  be  expected  from  the  Moslem 
race  in  the  suppression  of  the  inhuman  traffic,  the 


"'^ 


The  Decadence  of  Islam.  63 

^_ ,         

horrors  of  wHcli,  as  pursued  by  M^oslem  slave 
traders,  their  Prophet  would  have  been  the  first  to 
denounce.  Look  now  at  the  wisdom  with  which 
the  Gospel  treats  the  institution.  It  is  nowhere  in 
so  many  words  proscribed,  for  that  would,  under 
the  circumstances,  have  led  to  the  abnegation  of 
relative  duties  and  the  disruption  of  society.  It  is 
accepted  as  a  prevailing  institution  recognized  by 
the  civil  powers.  However  desirable  freedom 
might  be,  slavery  was  not  inconsistent  with  the 
Christian  profession: — "Art  thou  called  being  a  ioor.vii^2i. 
servant  P  care  not  for  it :  but  if  thou  mayest  be 
made  free,  use  it  rather."  The  duty  of  obedience 
to  his  master  is  enjoined  upon  the  slave,  and 
the  duty  of  mildness  and  urbanity  towards  his 
slave  is  enjoined  upon  the  master.  But  with  all 
this  was  laid  the  seed  which  grew  into  emancipa- 
tion. **  Our  Father"  gave  the  keynote  of  freedom. 
"  Ye  are  aU  the  children  of  God  by  faith  in  Christ  gf-  ^- «». 
Jesus."  "  There  is  neither  .  .  bond  nor  free, 
for  ye  are  all  one  in  Christ  Jesus."  "He  that  l^^"^ 
is  called  in  the  Lord,  being  a  servant,  is  the  Lord's 
freeman."  The  converted  slave  is  to  be  received 
*'  not  now  as  a  servant,  but  above  a  servant,  a  brother  Philemon  w 
beloved."  The  seed  has  borne  its  proper  harvest. 
Late  in  time,  no  doubt,  but  by  a  sure  and  certain 
development,  the  grand  truth  of  the  equality  of  the 
human  race,  and  the  right  of  every  man  and  woman 
to   freedom  of  thought,    and    (within   reasonable 


64  The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam. 


limit  of  law)  to  freedom  of  action,  lias  triumplied; 
and  it  has  triumphed  through  the  spirit  and  the 
precepts  inculcated  hy  the  gospel  eighteen  hundred 
years  ago. 
Relations  j^or  is  it  otherwise  with  the  relations  established 

between  the 

'^^^'*  oetween  the  sexes.     Polygamy,  divorce,  and  concu- 

binage with  bondmaids,  have  been  perpetuated,  as 
we  have  seen,  by  Islam  for  all  time ;  and  the  ordi- 
nances connected  therewith  have  given  rise,  in  the 
laborious  task  of  defining  the  conditions  and  limits  of 
what  is  lawful,  to  a  mass  of  prurient  casuistry  defiling 
the  books  of  Mahometan  law.  Contrast  with  this 
our  Saviour's  words,  **  He  which  made  them  at  the 

ifatt,  six.  4.  heginning  made  them  male  and  female.  ,  What 
therefore  God  hath  joined  together  let  no  man  put 
asunder. ^^  From  which  simple  utterance  have 
resulted  monogamy,  and  (in  the  absence  of 
adultery)  the  indissolubility  of  the  marriage  bond. 
While  in  respect  of  conjugal  duties  we  have  such 

.  Cor.  vii.  8.  large,  but  sufficiently  intelligible,  commands  as  *'  to 
render  due  benevolence," — whereby,  while  the  obli- 
gations of  the  marriage  state  are  maintained, 
Christianity  is  saved  from  the  impurities  which,  in 
expounding  the  ordinances  of  Mahomet,  surround 
the  sexual  ethics  of  Islam,  and  cast  so  foul  a  stain 
upon  its  literature. 

vim!l^°^  °'  Take,  again,  the  place  of  woman  in  the  world. 
We  need  no  injunction  of  the  veil  or  the  harem. 
As  the  temples  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  body  is  to 


The  Decadence  of  Islam,  55 

be  kept  undefiled,  and  every  one  is  "to  possess  iThe8.iT.4 
his  vessel  in  sanctification  and  honour."  Men  are 
to  treat "  the  elder  women  as  mothers ;  the  younger  i  Tim.  v.  2. 
as  sisters,  with  all  purity.'*  "Women  are  to  "  adorn 
themselves  in  modest  apparel,  with  shamef acedness  1 1'im.  a  » 
and  sobriety."  These,  and  such  like,  maxims 
embrace  the  whole  moral  fitness  of  the  several 
relations  and  duties  which  they  define.  They  are 
adapted  for  all  ages  of  time,  and  for  all  conditions 
of  men.  They  are  capable  of  being  taken  by  every 
individual  for  personal  guidance,  according  to  his 
own  sense  of  propriety,  and  they  can  be  accom- 
modated by  society  at  large  with  a  due  reference 
to  the  habits  and  customs  of  the  day.  The  attempt 
of  Mahomet  to  lay  down,  with  circumstantial 
minuteness,  the  position  of  the  female  sex,  the 
veiling  of  her  person,  and  her  withdrawal  from 
the  gaze  of  man,  has  resulted  in  seclusion  and 
degradation;  while  the  spirit  of  the  gospel,  and 
injunctions  like  that  of  "  giving  honour  to  i  ^«t«  ui.  ^ 
the  wife  as  to  the  weaker  vessel,''  have  borne 
the  fruit  of  woman's  elevation,  and  have  raised 
her  to  the  position  of  influence,  honour,  and 
equality,  which  (notwithstanding  the  marital  supe- 
riority of  the  husband  in  the  ideal  of  the  Christian 
family)  she  now  occupies  in  the  social  scale. 

In  the  type  of  Mussulman  government,  which  ^^^ 
(though  not  laid  down  in  the  Goran)  is  founded  ^^**^- 
upon  the  spirit  of  the  Faith  and  the  precedent  of  the 


56 


The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam. 


Christianity 
leaves 
humanity 
free  to 
expand. 


Prophet,  tlie  civil  is  indissolubly  blended  with  the 
spiritual  authority,  to  the  detriment  of  rehgious 
liberty  and  political  progress.  The  Ameer,  or  com- 
mander of  the  faithful,  should,  as  in  the  early 
times,  so  also  in  all  ages,  be  the  Imdm,  or  religious 
chief ;  and  as  such  he  should  preside  at  the  weekly 
Cathedral  service.  It  is  not  a  case  of  the  Church 
being  subject  to  the  State,  or  the  State  being 
subject  to  the  Church.  Here  (as  we  used  to  see 
in  the  Papal  domains)  the  Church  is  the  State, 
and  the  State  the  Church.  They  both  are  one. 
And  in  this,  we  have  another  cause  of  the  back- 
wardness and  depression  of  Mahometan  society 
Since  the  abolition  of  the  temporal  power  in  Italy, 
we  have  nowhere  in  Christian  lands  any  such 
theocratic  union  of  Caesar  and  the  Church,  so  that 
secular  and  religious  advance  is  left  more  or  less 
unhampered.  Whereas  in  Islam,  the  hierarchicho- 
political  constitution  has  hopelessly  welded  the 
secular  arm  with  the  spiritual  in  one  common 
sceptre,  to  the  furthering  of  despotism,  and  elimi- 
nation of  the  popular  voice  from  its  proper  place 
in  the  concerns  of  State. 

And  so,  throughout  the  whole  range  of  political, 
religious,  social  and  domestic  relations,  the 
attempt  made  by  the  founder  of  Islam  to  provide 
for  ail  contingencies,  and  to  fix  everything  afore- 
hand  by  rigid  rule  and  scale,  has  availed  to  cramp 
and    benumb    the  free    activities  of   life,  and    to 


TheCoran 

checks 

progress. 


Conclusion.  61 


paralyze  the  natural  efforts  of  society  at  healthy 
growth,  expansion,  and  reform.  As  an  author 
already  quoted  has  so  well  put  it :  "  The  Gordn 
has  frozen  Mahometan  thought ;  to  obey  it  is  to 
abandon  progress" ^ 

Writers  have  indeed  been  found  who,  dwelling  isisiam 
upon  the  benefits  conferred  by  Islam  on  idolatrous  any  nation? 
and  savage  nations,  have  gone  so  far  as  to  hold 
that  the  religion  of  Mahomet  may  in  consequence 
be  suited  to  certain  portions  of  mankind, — as  if  the 
faith  of  Jesus  might  peaceably  divide  with  it  the 
world.  But  surely  to  acquiesce  in  a  system  which 
reduces  the  people  to  a  dead  level  of  social  de- 
pression, despotism,  and  semi-barbarism,  would  be 
abhorrent  from  the  first  principles  of  philanthropy. 
With  the  believer,  who  holds  the  gospel  to  be 
"  Good  tidings  of  great  joy,  which  shall  be  to  all 
people,'*  such  a  notion  is  on  higher  grounds  un- 
tenable ;  but  even  in  view  of  purely  secular  con- 
siderations it  is  not  only  untenable,  but  altogether 
unintelligible.     As  I  have  said  elsewhere: — 


LukaiLIti 


The  eclipse  in  the  East,  which  still  sheds  its  blight  on  the 
ancient  seats  of  Jerome  and  Chrysostom,  and  shrouds  in  dark- 
ness the  once  bright  and  famous  Sees  of  Cyprian  and  Augustine, 
has  been  disastrous  everywhere  to  liberty  and  progress,  equally 
as  it  has  been  to  Christianity.  And  it  is  only  as  that  eclipse 
shall  pass  away,  and  the  Sun  of  Kighteousness  again  shine  forth, 
that  we  can  look  to  the  nations  now  dominated  by  Islam  sharing 
with  us  those  secondary  but  precious  fruits  of  Divine  teaching. 
Then  with  the  higher  and  enduring  blessings  which  our  faith 


*  Dr.  Fairbaim,  G<mt»mporary  Eeview^  p.  866. 


58 


The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam. 


bestows,  but  not  till  then,  we  may  hope  that  there  will  follow 
likewise  in  their  wake  freedom  and  progress  and  all  that  tends 
to  elevate  the  human  race.^ 


No  dacrifioe 
for  Bin,  or 
redemptive 
grace. 


Although,  with  the  view  of  placing  the  argument 
on  independent  ground,  I  have  refrained  from  touch- 
ing the  peculiar  doctrines  of  Christianity,  and  the 
inestimable  benefits  which  flow  to  mankind  there- 
from, I  may  be  excused,  before  I  conclude,  if  I 
add  a  word  regarding  them.  The  followers  of 
Mahomet  have  no  knowledge  of  God  as  a  Father  ; 
still  less  have  they  knowledge  of  Him  as  "  Our 
Father," — the  God  and  Father  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ.  They  acknowledge,  indeed,  that  Jesus 
was  a  true  prophet  sent  of  God ;  but  they  deny 
His  crucifixion  and  death,  and  they  know  nothing 
of  the  power  of  His  resurrection.  To  those  who 
have  found  redemption  and  peace,  in  these  the 
grand  and  distinctive  truths  of  the  Christian  faith, 
it  may  be  allowed  to  mourn  over  the  lands  in 
which  the  light  of  the  Gospel  has  been  quenched, 
and  these  blessings  blotted  out,  by  the  material 
forces  of  Islam ;  where,  together  with  civilization 
and  liberty,  Christianity  has  given  place  to  gross 
darkness,  and  it  is  as  if  now  "there  were  no 
more  sacrifice  for  sins."  We  may,  and  we  do,  look 
forward  with  earnest  expectation  to  the  day  when 
knowledge  of  salvation  shall  be   given  to  these 

*  The  Early  Caliphate  and  Rise  of  Islam y  being  the  Rede  Lectora 
for  1881,  delivered  before  the  University  of  Cambridge,  p.  28. 


Conclusion.  59 


nations  "  by  the  remission  of  their  sins,  through  the 
tender  mercy  of  our  God,  whereby  the  dayspring 
from    on  high  hath  visited  us,    to  give  light  to  Jji??,** 
them  that  sit  in  darkness,  and  in  the  shadow  of 
death,  to  guide  our  feet  into  the  way  of  peace." 

But  even  apart  from  these,  the  special  blessings  contrast 
of    Christianity,   I  ask,  which  now,  of    the  two  J^^an*^^ 
faiths,  bears,  in  its  birth  and  growth,  the  mark  ^°^^ 
of  a  Divine  hand,  and  which  the  human  stamp  ? 
Which  looks  likest  the  handiwork  of  the  God  of 
Nature  who  "  hath  laid  the  measures  of  the  earth,"  Job  xxxviu 

5. 

acd  "hath  stretched  the  line  upon  it,"  but  not  the 
less  with  an  ever- varying  adaptation  to  time  and 
place  ?  and  which  the  artificial  imitation  ? 

"  As  a  Reformer,  Mahomet  did  indeed  advance  his  people  to  jg|j„Q, 
a  certain  point ;  but  as  a  Prophet  he  left  them  fixed  immovably 
at  that  point  for  all  time  to  come.  As  there  can  be  no  return, 
8o  neither  can  there  be  any  progress.  The  tree  is  of  artificial 
planting.  Instead  of  containing  within  itself  the  germ  of  growth 
and  adaptation  to  the  various  requirements  of  time,  and  clime, 
and  circumstance,  expanding  with  the  genial  sunshine  and  the 
rain  from  heaven,  it  remains  the  same  forced  and  stunted  thing 
aH  when  first  planted  twelve  centuries  ago."^ 

Such    is    Islam.     Now   what    is    Christianity  P 
Listen  to  the  prophetic  words  of  the  Founder  Him-  compared  by 

■*•         ■*•  (Jilll>l  to 

self,  who  compares  it  to  the  works  of  Nature  ; —     ^oi'^Natl^e 

'^  So  is  the  kingdom  of  Ood,  as  if  a  man  should  cast  seed  into   jy£3^j.jj  jy^  ^ 
the  ground  ;  27,  28. 

''And  should  sleep,  and  rise  night  and  day,  and  the  seed  should 
spring  and  grow  up,  he  knoweth  not  how. 

'*  For  the  earth  hringeth  forth  fruit  of  herself:  first  the  hUtde^ 
then  the  ear,  after  that  the  full  corn  i/n  the  ear." 

*  The  Corany  etc.,  p.  66. 


60 


The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Islam, 


Mark  iy.  80, 
31.  32. 


Islam  the 
work  of 
man: 

Christianity 
the  work  of 
God. 


Psalm  bczii. 
i7,  8,  18,  19. 


And  again: — 

^^Whereunto  shall  we  liken  the  hingdom  of  Ood,  or  with  what 
comparison  shall  we  compare  it  f 

**It  is  like  a  grain  of  mustard  seed,  which  when  U  is  sown  in 
the  earth,  is  less  than  all  seeds  that  be  in  the  earth  ; 

**  But  when  it  is  sown,  it  groweth  up  and  becometh  greater  than 
all  herbs,  wnd  shooteth  out  greai  branches,  so  that  the  fowls  of  the 
air  may  lodge  under  the  shadow  of  it. " 

Which,  is  Nature^  and  which  is  Arty  let  the 
reader  judge.  Which  hears  the  impress  of  man's 
hand,  and  which  that  of  Him  who  "  is  wonderful 
in  counsel,  and  excellent  in  working  ?  " 

In  fine,  of  the  Arabian  it  may  be  said  : 

"  Hitherto  shali  thou  com^y  hvt  no  further,  and  here  shall  thy 
proud  waves  be  stayed," 

But  of  Christ, — 

"  His  name  shall  endure  for  ever.  His  namt  shaU  be  continued 
as  long  as  the  sun.  And  men  shall  be  blessed  m  Him;  all  nations 
shall  call  Him  blessed. 

"  He  shall  have  dominion  also  from  sea  to  sea,  and  from  the 
river  unto  the  ends  of  the  earth. 

**  Blessed  be  the  Lord  God,  the  God  of  Israd,  who  only  doeth 
wondrous  things.  And  blessed  be  His  glorious  name  for  evei';  and 
fet  the  whole  earth  be  filled  with  His  glory.     Amen,  and  A  m^n.  *' 


CHRISTIANITY   AND   CONFUCIANISM 
COMPARED 

IN   THEIR 

Teaching  of  the  Whole  Duty  of  Man 

BY 

JAMES  LEGGE,  LL.D. 


iv 


Argument  of  the  %xul 

The  writer  does  not  institute  a  comparison  between  Christianity  as 
a  whole  and  Confucianism.  He  does  not  dwell  upon  the  teaching 
of  Christianity  as  to  the  moral  and  spiritual  condition  of  man  by 
nature,  nor  on  the  redeeming  and  regenerating  power  of  Chris- 
tianity, but  confines  himself  to  a  comparison  between  the  teaching 
of  the  respective  systems  on  the  whole  duty  of  man. 

The  whole  duty  of  man,  according  to  Christianity,  is  comprised 
in  the  word  love.  Christ's  love  to  us  is  to  be  the  measure,  and 
His  death  for  us  the  motive,  of  our  love  to  one  another.  This 
love  will  prompt  to  obedience,  self-control,  and  self-denial.  The 
Christian  will  seek  to  be  perfect,  according  to  the  prayer  of  the 
Apostle  for  the  entire  sanctification  of  believers.  Christianity 
teaches  the  cultivation  of  the  more  winning  as  well  as  the  sterner 
graces  of  character. 

Confucianism  teaches  men  the  discharge  of  their  duties  in  the 
various  relations  of  life.  It  regards  the  moral  nature  as  conferred 
on  men  by  God,  and  so  gives  a  religious  sanction  to  the  per- 
formance of  human  duties.  The  worship  of  God  is  confined  to  the 
sovereign.  The  religious  sensibilities  of  the  people  flow  into  the 
worship  of  parents  and  ancestors,  as  a  part  of  filial  piety,  which  is 
regarded  as  the  first  and  chief  of  human  duties.  The  general  rule 
of  Confucius  and  the  golden  rule  of  Christ  are  compared,  and  the 
original  character  of  the  latter  is  vindicated.  The  absence  of  any 
glow  of  piety  in  the  teaching  of  Confucius,  and  the  uncertainty  in 
which  he  left  his  followers  about  religion,  are  pointed  out. 

The  superiority  of  Christian  to  Confucian  teaching  is  shown  to 
consist  in  the  importance  it  attaches  to  the  duties  of  religion,  in 
the  nearness  of  God  to  men  which  it  reveals,  the  advantages  which 
this  nearness  confers,  in  placing  all  our  social  duties  under  the  guar- 
dianship of  God,  and  the  strength  it  assures  to  us  in  the  battle 
with  temptation,  in  the  motive  to  which  it  appeals  for  obedience,  in 
the  duties  which  it  inculcates  with  reference  to  the  five  relations 
of  society,  in  the  perfection  of  the  example  it  offers  for  our  imita- 
tion in  our  sinless  High  Priest  and  Saviour,  who  is  the  revelation 
of  the  Father.  Confucianism  is  shown  to  be  incapable  of  produc- 
ing fruits  comparable  to  the  character  formed  by  Christianity  when 
its  principles  have  free  course.  The  aggressive  character  of 
Christianity,  and  what  is  needed  in  order  to  win  the  Chinese  to 
Christ,  are  indicated. 


CHRISTIANITY  AND  CONFUCIANISM  COMPARED 

IN  THEIR  TEACHINQ   OP 

THE  WHOLE  DUTY  OF  MAN. 


ROM  the  teackings  of  Christianity  and  "F^^^^f 
Confucianism  I  have  selected  and  con-  cS??°° 
fined  myself  to  one  important  point,  by 
their  treatment  of  which  we  may  form 
a  jud-gment  as  to  their  comparative  worth.  The 
subject  chosen,  however,  as  the  ground  of  com- 
parison between  them  is  a  testing  one,  and  that  in 
which  the  cause  of  Confucianism  is  specially  strong. 
The  courses  and  styles  of  life,  to  the  attainment 
of  which  they  respectively  call  their  followers,  will 
enable  the  reader  to  decide  which  of  them  is  the 
more  suited  to  secure  the  complete  and  harmonious 
development  of  our  nature,  to  make  men  good,  and 
to  make  them  happy. 

It  was  one  of  the  deep,  if  somewhat  enigmatic 
utterances  of  Confucius  (Analects  xv.  28),  "  Man  confudus 

^  ' '  on  man 

can  enlarge  his  principles  of    conduct;    it  is  not  p^n^piea 
those  principles  that  enlarge  man."     His  idea  was, 
that  man  is  greater  than    any  system  which  he 
may  be  called  to  follow,  and  that  there  is  that  in 


4  Christianity  and  Confucianism  Compared 

him  which  constitutes  him  its  judge,  and  will 
enahle  him  to  supplement  and  complete  it,  if  that 
he  necessary.  In  accordance  with  that  saying,  I 
will  endeavour  to  set  forth  what  Christianity  and 
Thewhoie      Confuciauism  lay  down   as   The   Whole   Duty 

duty  01  man.  " 

OF  Man,  and  then  ask  my  readers  to  judge  of 
their  own  selves  which  of  the  two  is  the  right 
teaching  ;  or,  if  it  shall  he  thought  that  hoth  are 
good,  then  to  say  which  is  the  hetter. 
J?cS-*^^  Let  us  begin  with  Christianity.  I  prefer  to  do 
tiiT^bjSt-  ^^'  because  my  readers  are  probably  all  acquainted 
with  it.  I  cannot  tell  them  anything  about  its 
teaching  on  the  point  in  hand  which  they  have  not 
often  heard  and  read.  I  must  refer  to  it,  how- 
ever, stirring  up  their  minds,  it  may  be,  only  by 
way  of  remembrance,  but  preparing  them  thereby 
all  the  better  to  appreciate  and  estimate  what  I 
shall  shortly  tell  them  about  the  teaching  of  Con- 
fucianism. What,  then,  is  the  Whole  Duty  of 
Man  according  to  Christianity  ? 

There  will  probably  occur  to  most,  in  answer  to 
J?iSer"^  this  question,  the  words  of  the  Hebrew  preacher 
(Eccles.  xii.  13) :  "  Let  us  hear  the  conclusion  of 
the  whole  matter  ;  Fear  God,  and  keep  His  com- 
mandments: for  this  is  the  whole  duty  of  man." 
When  the  preacher  thus  spoke  of  "  the  command- 
ments of  God,"  he,  no  doubt,  had  in  his  mind 
what  we  call  "  The  Ten  Commandments ; "  the 
"Ten  Words,"  as  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Bible 


vn  their  Teaching  of  the  Whole  Duty  of  Man.         5 

has  it,  in  wMch  God  summed  up  His  legislation  for 
the  infant  nation  at  mount  Sinai.  Of  those  com- 
mandments "  the  mediator/'  Moses,  himself  gave  The 

summary  of 

a   summary   in  the  two  sentences :  **  Thou  shalt  ^'^^  Ten 

•'  Command- 

love  Jehovah  thy  God  with  all  thine  heart,  and  Sm2.^^ 

with  all  thy  soul,  and  with  all  thy  might "  (Deut. 

vi.  5) ;   and   "  Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbour  as 

thyseH''(Lev.  xix.  18). 

It  may  be  said  that  this  was  a  summary  of  the 

Jewish  law,  while  in  this  Tract  we  have  to  do  with 

Christianitv.     But  Christ  made  it  His  own.     On  Adopted  by 

•      Christ. 

one  occasion,  when  He  was  asked  by  a  lawyer,  one 
of  the  Pharisees,  which  was  the  great  command- 
ment (Matt.  xxii.  36),  He  answered :  '*  Thou  shalt 
love  the  Lord  thy  God  with  all  thy  heart,  and 
with  all  thy  soul,  and  with  all  thy  mind.  This  is 
the  great  and  first  commandment.  And  a  second 
like  unto  it  is  this :  Thou  shalt  love  thy  neigh- 
bour as  thyself.  On  these  two  commandments 
hangeth  the  whole  law  and  the  prophets."  Did 
not  Christ  in  these  words  adopt  the  Mosaic  sum- 
mary of  the  Jewish  law,  and  repeat  it  with  His 
own  authority? 

But  we  have  been  told  that  that  second  sentence 
in  the  summary  of  man's  duty,  as  originally  de- 
livered, follows  the  injunction,  "  Thou  shalt  not  SS^^ 
bear  any  grudge  against  the  children  of  thy  people,"  ^pp^**^***"* 
so  that  it  was  only  of  national,  and  not  of  universal, 
application.     This  objection,  however,  cannot  be 


6  Christianity  and  Confucianism  Compared 

urged  against  the  re-affirmation  of  it  by  Christ, 

when,  replying  to  a  vicious  application  of  it,  in  His 

Sermon  on  the  Mount  (Matt.  v.  43),  He  pronounced, 

Whom  we      "  But  I  sav  unto  you,  Love  your  enemies."    Then 

are  to  love.  jj'^ 

we  have  His  parable  of  the  G-ood  Samaritan  (Luke 
X.  30-37),  in  answer  to  the  question,  "Who  is 
my  neighbour?"  teaching  us  that  all  who  need 
our  sympathy  and  assistance,  without  distinction 
of  nation  or  creed,  should  be  regarded  as  our 
neighbours,  and  be  loved  and  helped  by  us. 

According  to  Christianity,  therefore,  the  whole 
duty  of  man  is  comprised  in  the  one  little  word 
Love.  That  is  "  the  fulfilling  of  the  law."  And 
Christ  went  beyond  *'tho  law."  It  was  impos- 
sible to  insist  more  strongly  on  the  love  of  God 
than  Moses,  or  rather  than  Jehovah  Himself 
speaking  by  the  mouth  of  Moses,  had  done ; 
but  the  love  of  our  neighbour  appears  in  the 
Gospels  enjoined  more  emphatically  than  in  the 
summary  of  it  which  has  come  to  us  with  our 
Christ's  love  Lord's  approval  and  commendation.     He  said :  "  A 

to  us  to  be  . 

the  measure   ncw  commaudmont  I  ffive  unto  you,  that  ye  love 

of  our  love  "  J        f  J 

Sio^CT.  °^®  another,  even  as  I  have  loved  you,  that  ye 
also  love  one  another "  (John  xiii.  34 ;  comp.  xv. 
12).  These  words  show  the  depth  of  His  meaning 
in  the  declaration  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount, 
that  He  was  come  not  to  destroy  the  law  or  the 
prophets,  but  to  fulfil  them.  And  thus  those  who 
heard  them   understood  Him.     Witness  the  Ian- 


in  their  Teaching  of  the  Whole  Duty  of  Man.  *i 

guage  of  *'  the  beloved  disciple  :  '*  "  Hereby  know  oimsfB 

"^  ...  atoning 

we  love,  because  He  laid  down  His  life  for  us  ;  and  sacrifice  to 

'  ^  '  be  the 

we  ouofht  to  lay  down  our  lives  for  the  brethren  "  ^0*7® »' 

o  "^  our  love  to 

(1    John    iii.    16).  one  another. 

Where  there  is  love — not  to  say  this  love — there 
will  be  the  performance  of  all  its  promptings.  The 
duties  which  we  owe  will  be  discharged  sincerely, 
and  to  the  extent  of  our  ability.     This  implies  of  what  is 

^  implied  in 

course  the  exercise  of  self-government,  and  the  thiaiove. 
regulation  of  all  the  faculties  in  the  continent  of 
our  nature.  Every  contrary  lust  and  selfish  desire, 
every  angry  impulse  and  passion  must  be  denied 
lodgment  even  in  the  deep  and  hidden  recesses  of 
the  breast.     He  who  is  seekiner  to  fulfil  his  whole  The  aim 

.  .  .    .  of  the 

duty  as  enjoined  by  Christ  will  be  striving,  under  christian. 
the  constraint  of  love,  to  be  perfect  emotionally, 
intellectually,  and  practically,  a  true  son  of  God 
his  Father,  a  faithful  servant  of  Christ  his  Lord. 
The  object  of  the  Christian  ministry  is  **  for  the 
perfecting  of  the  saints'*  (Eph.  iv.  12).  The 
Apostle  Paul  wrote  to  the  Corinthians,  "  This  also  The 

^  ^  ^^^  Apostle's 

we  pray  for,  even  your  perfecting"  (2  Cor.  xiii.  9).  JJ^y^'^J^fg. 
His  prayer  for  the  Thessalonians  was,  "  The  God  Jtiieveri 
of  peace   Himself  sanctify  you  wholly,  and  may 
your  spirit  and  soul  and  body  be  preserved  entire, 
without  blame  "  (1  Thess.  v.  23).     The  summary  summary  0/ 
of  his  teaching,  as  inculcated  on  the  Philippians,  teaching. 
was :    *'  Finally,  brethren,  whatsoever   things   are 
true,  whatsoever  thin2:s  are  h(Jiiourab]e,  whatsoever 


8  Christianity  and  Confucianism  Compared 

tilings  are  just,  whatsoever  things  are  pure,  what- 
soever things  are  lovely,  whatsoever  things  are  of 
good  report,  — ^if  there  be  any  virtue,  and  if  there 
he  any  praise,  think  on  these  things  "  (Phil.  iv.  8). 
Such  is  a  brief  exhibition  of  the  teaching  of 
Christianity  on  the  duty  of  man.  I  will  leave  it 
for  the  present,  and  proceed  to  show  the  teaching 
Confucian      of  Confuciauism  on  the  same  subject.     And  I  am 

teaching. 

glad  to  be  able  to  place  in  the  forefront  a  descrip- 
tion of  it  by  the  highest  Chinese  authority. 

The  second   emperor  of  the  present    dynasty 

(1662-1722),  certainly  a  very  great  man,  pubKshed 

in  1670  what  has  become  known  in  Europe  as  the 

Khang-hsi  Sacred  Edict,  a  collection  of  sixteen 

Sefo?S£'   Precepts,  by  which  his  people  should  form  their 

5^4er.      characters,    and    order    their    conduct,    involving 

all    principles    essential    to    their    goodness    and 

happiness,  and  to  the  prosperity  of  the  empire.     It 

was  enacted  that,   on  the  first  and  fifteenth  day 

of  every  month,  it  should  be  read  in  the  hearing 

of  the  soldiery  and  people  in  each  statistical  division 

of  the  country.     The  emperor's  son  and  successor, 

whose   reign  is   called    the    Yung-chang    period 

tiS^oX     (1723-1735),  published  in  1724  an  Amplification 

Precepts.       ^f  ^^g  Prcccpts  in  a  high   style   of  composition, 

forming  a  volume  of  elegant  essays  or  sermons, 

which  should  be  read  on  those  days.     But  such 

finished  Chinese  compositions  are  not  intelligible 

to  a  promiscuous  audience   without    commentary 


in  their  Teaching  of  the  Whole  Duty  of  Man.         9 

and  paraphrase ;   and  by-and-by  there  appeared 

a  colloquial  Exposition  of  the  Essays,  admirably  couoquiai 

■*•  ■*■  _^_^  ''     exposition 

adapted  for  popular  use,  by  Wang  Yd-po,  the  of  them. 
Salt-comptroller  of  Shen-hsi  province.  A  Han 
Fang  tells  us  that,  having  been  appointed  governor 
of  Canton  province  in  1808,  and  become  acquainted 
with  Wang's  paraphrase,  he  selected  four  scholars 
with  very  distinct  enunciation,  to  deliver  it  on 
the  appointed  days  in  the  Canton  dialect.  *'  The 
people,"  he  says,  "thronged  round  them,  and  such  The  delivery 
a  change  was  effected  that  they  exceedingly  loved  p"^^°- 
to  hear,  and  found  it  easy  to  practise."  He  then 
distributed  it  throughout  the  districts,  and  charged 
the  local  officers  to  proclaim  it  everywhere,  "and 
not  leave  a  single  person,  even  along  the  thinly- 
inhabited  coasts  of  the  sea,  ignorant  and  dis- 
obedient." The  Paraphrase  has  thus  very  generally 
superseded  the  balanced  sentences  of  the  AmpHfica- 
tion.  The  public  reading  of  it  approaches  more 
nearly  to  our  popular  preaching  than  anything 
else  in  China.     Other  expositions  of  the  Precepts,  other 

*  ^         exposituwa. 

some  of  them  profusely  illustrated,  and  others  in 
easy  verse,  are  also  widely  known.  The  publication 
of  the  Khang-hsi  edict  has  been  a  great  success. 

The  text  of  the  seventh  Precept  is  this;  "Dis-  '^^^ 
countenance  and   put  away  strange  principles,  in 
order  to  exact  the  correct  doctrine."    "  The  correct 
doctrine "  is  Confucianism,  or  the  whole  duty  of 
man  as  inculcated  by  the  great  sage  and  the  other 


10         Ckristianity  and  Confucianism  Compared 

and  older  sages,  whose  views  it  was  his  boast  that 
The  strange    he  transmitted.     "  The  stranffe  principles  "  are  all 

principles.  o      i  c 

systems  of  doctrine  of  a  contrary  character,  and 
teaching  other  ways  of  life.  Chief  among  them 
are  Buddhism  and  Taoism,  which,  though  tolerated 
and  even  supported  to  some  extent  by  the  govern- 
ment of  China,  are  not  regarded  as  orthodox,  and 
should  be  discountenanced  and  put  a\^ay.  Chris- 
tianity also  is  mentioned,  and  men  are  warned 
against  believing  it;  but  it  was  very  little  that 
they  knew  about  it  in  China  two  hundred  years 
The  imperial  ago.      Ou    what   "the   corrcct   doctrine**  is,   the 

AjnplJfieron    .  •    i      a  ^'n 

the  correct     imperial  Amplifier  says  : — 

doctrine. 

*  *  Man,  born  in  the  position  intermediate  between  heaven  and 
earth,  has  nothing  to  attend  to  but  the  relationships  of  society 
and  the  regular  constituents  of  moral  worth,  which  are  daily 
called  mto  exercise.  All  should  observe  and  pursue  these,  the 
wise  as  well  as  the  simple.  The  sages  and  worthies  do  not 
approve  of  the  search  after  what  is  abstruse,  and  the  practice  of 
what  is  marvellous." 

The        ^    The  Paraphrast  expands  these   and   one   or  two 

Paraphrasrs  ^  *■ 

expansion,     nioro  sentcuces  in  the  following  manner : — 

**  What  is  most  to  be  feared  for  the  manners  and  customs  of 
the  people  is  that  they  become  violent  and  selfish.  But  if  men'» 
hearts  be  not  good,  how  can  their  manners  and  customs  be 
generous  and  right?  The  heart  of  man,  indeed,  is  naturally 
perfectly  upright  and  correct  ;  but  through  the  existence  of 
corrupt  doctrines,  men  all  get  to  practise  and  learn  what  is  not 
good.  That  their  hearts  may  be  good,  therefore,  we  must  look 
to  what  they  learn  and  practise,  and  make  sure  that  it  is  correct 
and  right.  Here  is  man,  with  his  head  towards  heaven  and  his 
feet  planted  on  the  earth,  in  the  middle  of  all  existing  things  ; — 
he  is  endowed  with  a  natural  rectitude  all  complete  ;  and  there 
axe  the  requirements  of  duty  in  his  lot.      la  there  anything 


in  their  Teaching  of  the  Whole  Duty  of  Man.       11 

besides,  anything  marvellous  or  rare,  that  he  has  to  do?  There 
are  simply  the  relations  of  ruler  and  minister,  of  father  and  son, 
of  husband  and  wife,  of  elder  brother  and  younger,  and  of  friend 
and  friend.  No  one,  whether  intelligent  or  stupid,  may  neglect, 
even  for  a  single  day,  the  courses  proper  to  those  relationships. 
If,  besides  those  courses,  beyond  your  proper  lot,  you  go  aboiit 
to  seek  after  refined  and  mysterious  dogmas,  and  to  engage  in 
strange  and  marvellous  performances,  you  wUl  show  yourselves 
to  be  very  bad  men." 

In  what  they  thus  say  on  the  seventh  Precept,  ^J^l^*^ 
neither  the  Amplifier  nor  his  Paraphrast  tells  us 
what  the  "regular  constituents  of  our  moral 
nature  *'  are,  nor  what  are  the  duties  of  the  several 
memhers  of  the  five  relations.  They  did  not  think 
it  necessary  to  enter  on  these  suhjects,  their  Chinese 
readers  being  familiar  with  them  from  their  early 
years.  It  will  he  well  for  me,  however,  to  touch 
briefly  on  both  topics  at  this  point,  in  order  to 
clear  the  way  for  the  further  prosecution  of  my 
argument.  It  is  not  necessary  nor  in  accordance 
with  the  plan  of  this  Tract,  to  discuss  what  is  said 
about  the  heart  of  man  being  naturally  upright 
and   correct.      "The  five  regular  constituents  of  The  five 

"  regular 

our  moral  nature"  are  the  principles,  attributes  X^^*SmI 
and  faculties,  of  benevolence,  righteousness,  pro-  ^^.ture. 
priety,  wisdom,  and  sincerity.  The  duties  of  the 
human  lot  in  the  five  relations,  as  stated  by  Mencius, 
are  "  between  father  and  son,  affection ;  between 
ruler  and  subject,  righteousness  ;  between  husband 
and  wife,  attention  to  their  separate  functions ; 
between  elders  and  youngers,  a  proper  distinction  ; 


12         Christianity  and  Confucianism  Comparea 

and  between  friends,  fidelity."^  A  more  detailed 
account  of  these  duties  is  given  in  what  we  may 
nie^chineso  call  the  Chinese  Primer,  the  first  book  which  boys 
learn  at  school.  "  Affection  between  father  and  son ; 
concord  between  husband  and  wife ;  kindness  on 
the  part  of  the  elder  brother,  and  deference  on  the 
part  of  the  younger ;  order  between  seniors  and 
juniors;  sincerity  between  fiiends  and  associates; 
respect  on  the  part  of  the  ruler,  and  loyalty  on 
that  of  the  minister : — these  are  the  ten  righteous 
courses  equally  binding  on  all  men."  ^ 

But  in  these  additions  to  the  statements  of  the 

authorities  which   I   have    been  using,   there   is 

nothing  to   indicate   clearly  that  in  "the  correct 

doctrine,*'  the  Confucian  orthodoxy  of  China,  there 

Only  social     is  required  of  men  anything  but  the  discharge  of 

treated  in      their  dutiGs  in  the  relations  of  society.     It  is  not 

these  state- 
ments. ^0  be  wondered  at  that  some  Christian  writers,  in 

comparing  Confucianism  and  Christianity,  and  not 
well  acquainted  with  the  former,  should  contend 
that  we  have  in  it  "  an  attempt  to  substitute  a 
morality  for  a  theology."  ^  I  will  point  out  imme- 
diately wherein  their  view  is  defective;  but  at 
present  we  freely  grant  to  them  that  in  the  above 

1  See  Mendus,  lu,  L,  4.  8. 

2  This  is  taken  from  The  Classic  in  Lines  of  Three  Characteri. 
(San  Tsze  King),  by  Wang  Po-hao,  better  known  poi  hajjs  as  Wang 
Yung  lin,  of  our  13th  century.  The  fullest  treatment  of  the 
duties  is  in  The  Booh  of  the  Record  of  Rites. 

*  See  Dr.  Matheson,  The  Faiths  of  tlie  World.     Lecture  m. 


in  their  Teaching  of  the  Whole  Duty  of  Man.        Vd 

expositions  of  man's  duties  there  is  no  mention  of 
any  duty  wMcli  lie  owes  to  God.  There  are  the 
five  relations  of  society : — let  him  manifest  his  cog- 
nizance of  them,  and  to  the  utmost  of  his  ability 
discharge  their  requirements.  There  are  the  five 
constituents  of  his  moral  nature  ;  let  him  show  his 
appreciation  of  them,  and  regulate  that  discharge  in 
accordance  with  them.  Let  him  do  this,  and  there 
is  nothing  more  that  he  ought  to  do.  I  do  not  say  JJ'?*^}^^-"^ 
that  this  is  a  poor  ideal  of  human  duty,  or  that  it  Jeiation"^ 
is  not  a  high  ideal  of  it;  but  it  does  not  say  a  word  and'ood™"' 
about  any  relation  between  man  and  God.  The  first 
and  great  commandment  of  Christ  is:  "Thou  shalt 
love  the  Lord  thy  God  with  all  thy  heart,  and  with 
aU  thy  soul,  and  with  all  thy  mind."  On  this 
those  Confucian  teachers  are  absolutely  silent. 

Does  the  religion  of  China,  then,  teach  anything 
about  any  worship  of  God  or  of  other  beings  ?  No 
one  who  has  sufficiently  studied  writings  that  have 
come  down  to  us  from  an  antiquity  greater  than 
that  of  Confucius,  and  with  his  approval,  or  those 
still  older  than  the  beginning  of  our  era,  and  pur- 
porting to  record  his  words  and  sentiments,  ^ill 
venture  to  say  that  it  does  not.  ^ 

In  the  first  place,  the  relations  of  society  and  ^^J|^^®^®" 
the  duties  belonging  to  them  are  set  forth  as  the  jorth^he^ 
appointments   of  Heaven   or   God.     We  have   a  and  duties 
treatise  called  "The  Doctrine  of  the  Mean,"  by  the  appoint 

,  .  ment  of 

the  grandson  of  Confucius.     It  contains  a  con-  heaven. 


14         Chrostianity  and  Confucianism  Compared 


A.  moral 


densed  exhibition  of  Ms  teaching,  and  begins  with 
this  sentence :  "  What  heaven  has  conferred  is 
called  The  Nature  ;  an  accordance  with  the 
nature  is  called  The  Path  of  Duty  ;  the  regula- 
tion of  the  path  is  called  The  System  of  Instruc- 
tion." A  great  monarch,  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, B.C.,  proclaimed  : 

"The  great  God  has  conferred  even  on  the  inferior  people  a 
moral  sense,  compliance  with  which  would  show  their  nature 
im variably  right."  ^ 

A  poem  of  the  ninth  century  B.C.  commences  thus : 

**  Heaven,  in  giving  birth  to  the  multitudes  of  the  people,  to 
every  faculty  and  relationship  annexed  its  law.  The  people 
possess  this  normal  nature,  and  they  consequently  love  its 
normal  virtue.  Heaven  beheld  the  ruler  of  Chau,  brilliantly 
affecting  It,  by  his  conduct  below,  and  to  maintain  him,  It« 
son,  gave  birth  to  Chung  Shan-fii."* 

These  passages  testify  that  while  man  is  by  his 
moral  nature  constituted  a  law  to  himself,  he  is  so 
by  the  act  and  decree  of  God ;  a  religious  sanction 
is  given  to  all  his  relationships  and  his  performance 


ferred  by 
God. 


A  religious 
sanction 
given  to  all 
man's  duties 


andrelation.    ^f    ^J^gij,    ^^^'gg^ 


In  the   second   place,  among  the  relations   of 

1  See  The  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  ni.,  p.  90. 
*  Tlie  Sacred    Books   of    the    East,  m.,  p.  425.       I  have 
/endfied  the  stanza  in  The  Book  of  Ancient  Poetry,  pp.  334-7: 

Heaven  made  the  race  of  men, 

With  nature  good  and  large  ; 
Functions  of  body,  powers  of  mind, 

Their  duties  to  discharge. 
All  men  this  normal  nature  own  ; 
Its  normal  nature  all  men  crown. 

With  love  sincere  and  true. 
Heaven  by  our  Sovereign's  course  was  moved 
And  him  to  aid,   Its  son  approved, 

(}ave  birth  to  Chung  Shan-f^ 


in  their  Teaching  of  the  Whole  Duty  of  Man.        15 

society  is  that  of  father  and  son,  or  of  parent  and 

cHld.     The  "  affection  "  belonging  to  it  takes,  on 

the  part  of  the  son,  the  form  of  filial  piety.     My  J^  ^H^_^ 

readers  will  all  have  heard  of  this  as  the  distin-  SristiSSle 

guishing  characteristic  of  the  Chinese  race.     It  is        eser^ce. 

so.     Filial  duty  is  with  them  the  first  and  great 

commandment.     "  It  is/'  they  say,  "  the  first  and 

chief  of  all  human  virtues."     I  do   not  wish  to 

detract  from  their  commendations  of  it,  nor  to  deny 

the  general  estimate  of  their  observance  of  it.     I 

look,  indeed,  on  the  long-continued  existence  and 

growth  of  the  Chinese  nation  as  a  fulfilment  of 

the  promise  annexed  to  our  fifth  commandment, 

"  Honour  thy  father  and  mother,  that  thy  days 

may  be  long  in  the  land  which  the  Lord  thy  God 

giveth  thee."     But  now  Confucianism  inculcates  The  worship 

,  of  the  dead 

the  worship  of  the  dead  as  a  part  of  filial  piety.  ^^^^^ 
The  sage  himself  specifies  five  things  as  necessary  ^^^y- 
to  its  full  discharge :  the  utmost  reverence,  the 
amplest  and  most  ungrudging  support,  the  greatest 
anxiety  when  parents  are  ill,  every  demonstration 
of  grief  in  mourning  for  them,  and  the  utmost 
solemnity  in  sacrificing  (or  presenting  oblations)  to 
them.  ^  Quotations  need  not  be  multiplied.  To 
bow  before  the  shrines  of  ancestors  and  parents,  to 
present  offerings  to  them,  and  to  pray  to  them, — 
these  things  are  as  much  essential  to  filial  duty  as 
obedience  to  the  commands  of  parents,  reverently 
1  The  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  m.,  p.  480. 


16         Christianity  and  Confucianism  Compared 

An  element    lionouring  them,  copying  their  good  example,  and 
in  the  ministeriner  to  their  wants.     Thus  in  this  highest 

highest  ^  •        1  1 

moralities  of  ^f  j^-\^q  moralitios  of  Confucianism  there  is  also  the 

Ck)niuciaa> 

"°^  element  of  religion.     And  it  would  be  easy  to  sub- 

stantial :>  further  this  point  by  adducing  the  worship 
which  the  system  enjoins,  not   only  of   ancestors 
and  parents,  but  also  of  the  departed  great, — of  all 
who  have  distinguished  themselves  as  legislators, 
inventors  of  useful  arts,  general  benefactors,  and 
patriots.^ 
G^l^con-       ^^  *^®  ^^^^  place,  there  is  in  Confucianism  a 
fudanism.     ^Q^ship  of  God  Himsclf .     From  time  immemorial, 
there  has  been  in  China  the  belief  of  one  Supreme 
Being,  first  indicated  by  the  name  heaven,  and 
then  by  the  personal  designation  of  God  as  the 
Supreme  Lord  and  Ruler.    For  between  three  and 
four  thousand  years  at  the  least,  there  has  been 
the  worship  of  this  Being;  but  as  formally  ap- 
proved  and  organized  by  the  ordinances  of  the 
^^edto    State,  it  is  confined  to  the  Sovereign  for  the  time 
"*^-  being.     He  renders  it  in  the  suburbs  of  his  capital 

on  a  few  occasions  in  the  course  of  the  year,  attended 
by  certain  of  his  nobles  and  official  functionaries ; 
but  of  the  people  there  are  none  with  him.  It  was 
preStaTon  ^*  ^^^t,  uo  doubt,  a  representative  worship  by  the 
gj^^ehead  g^^^  ^f  ^^^  Family  ;  it  continued  to  be  the  same 
when  the  Family  grew  into  the  Tribe ;  it  is  still 

^  Seethe  writer's  ReUgions  of  China  (Hodder  and  Stoughton), 
pp.  88-90. 


o; 
family. 


in  their  Teaching  of  the  y^c^eSiity^T  Man,        17 

..>     .;-'^'      fl/ 

the  same  wlien  the  tribe  has  ^ultiplies^. 'and  be-  Never 
come  the  most  populous  empire  oa-tfae"  earth.     It  through  th« 

■^     *■  ^  ^  nation  or 

has  never  been  extended  through  the  nation  or  {J^®^",^^ 
joined  in  by  the  multitudes  of  the  people.  A  most 
wonderful  fact,  and  most  deplorable  !  The  greatest 
occasion  of  the  imperial  religious  celebration  is  at 
the  earliest  dawn  on  the  morning  of  the  winter 
solstice  at  "  the  Altar  of  Heaven.*'  Some  of  the 
prayers,  or  psalms  rather,  with  which  the  various 
oblations  have  been  occasionally  accompanied,  have 
been  remarkable,  and  have  risen  to  a  high  style  of 
devotion  ;  but,  after  all,  the  whole  service  is  but  a  T^e  eervie© 

'  '  '  a  form  of 

form  of  state  ceremonial,  of  which  the  people  have  cerSaoniai. 
hardly  any  knowledge,  and  which  does  not  contri-  Does  not 
bute  to  maintain  in  them  a  real  religious  life  to  any  miiintainin 

.  *      "      them  a  real 

great  extent.     Where  it  has  that  effect,  the  result  feUgious  lifa 

•^  ^  .         .  .  *^  ^^^  great 

is  due  mainly  to  a  sentence  of  Confucius,  in  which,  ^^'^^^ 
as  if  to  guard  against  its  being  considered  merely   j 
a  worship  of  the  great  forms  or  forces  of  nature,  he   j 
pronounced  that  "  The  ceremonies  of  the  sacrifices 
to  Heaven  and  Earth  are  those  by  which  we  serve 
the  Supreme  God."^ 

Debarred  from  this  direct  worship  of  God,  the  The  spiritual 

*    ^   ^  susceptibili- 

spiritual  sensibilities   and    susceptibilities   of    the  aJJ^edlnto 
masses  of  the  Chinese  have  flowed  all  the  more  of'an^^stow 
into  the  worship  of  their  parents  and  ancestors,  and 
the  way  has  been  all  the  easier  for  the  dissemination 
among  them  of  the  magical  pretensions  and  psy- 

'  The  Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  ch.  xix.  6. 
C 


18         Christianity  and  Confucianism  Compared 

chical   fancies   of   Taoism  and  the  idolatries  ana 
What  transmigrations  of  Buddhism.     There  remains  for 

remains  for  *=" 

*^6™-  them  only  the  natural  and  indistinct  reverence  of 

Heaven,  with  groanings  and  complaining  appeals 
to  It,  or  to  God  in  heaven,  when  they  are  suffering 
under  calamity  or  other  cause  of  distress.  I 
have  seen  '*  the  falKng  of  the  tear  "  in  the  hitter- 
ness  of  grief,  and  "the  upward  glancing  of  the  eye" 

I^oiS?''''   to  the  sky  above.      Recently  I  was  struck  with 

^^y-  a  passage  in  the  story  of  a  young  lady  pressed  to  a 

certain  course  which,  though  not  contrary  to  what 
was  right,  did  not  command  her  full  approval  It 
was  not  evil,  but  might  be  misinterpreted  so  as  to 
give  to  another  passage  in  her  life  the  appearance  of 
being  evil,  though  it  had  been  good  and  even  praise- 

Her  trust  in  worthy  in  itself .  She  wished  to  avoid  it,  and  to 
trust  in  Heaven  to  bring  about,  in  a  perfectly 
legitimate  way,  the  object  which  it  was  intended 
to  serve.  "  I  have  heard,"  she  says,  "  that  Heaven 
is  sure  to  bring  to  pass  the  thing  of  which  Heaven 
has  originated  the  purpose."  It  was  an  expression 
it  seemed  to  me  of  simple  and  genuine  piety.  Such 
a  sentiment  and  such  language,  however,  are  rarely 
met  with  in  Chinese  society  or  writings.  And 
where  they  do  occur,  it  is  as  calculations  of  the 
understanding  more  than  gushings  of  the  heart 
They  are  argumentative  rather  than  emotional, 
expressing  the  fear  to  offend  Heaven  and  not  the 
wish  to  please  it.    They  come  short,  very  far  short, 


in  their  Teaching  of  the  Whole  Duty  of  Man.        19 

of  that  love  of  God  which  is  the  first  and  great  No  incite- 
commandment  of  Christianity.     I  have  been  read-  Godin**  **^ 
VQg  Chinese  books  for  more  than  forty  years,  and  ^oo^- 
ftny  general   requirement  to  *'  love  God,"  oi;  the 
mention  of  anyone  as  actually  "  loving  "  Him,  has 
yet  to  come  for  the  first  time  under  my  eye. 

The  three  considerations  which  I  have  urged  make 
it  clear  that  the  Confucian  system  is  not  a  morality 
merely,  but  also  a  religion.    That  the  sage,  however, 
"  the  Master,"  as  his  disciples  liked  to  style  him,  Confucian, 
did  not  speak  of  the  higher  aspects  of  the  system  iSgion 
which  he  found  existing  in  his  country  ;  and  that 
he  shrank  from  discussing  metaphysical  subjects, 
and  even   all   questions  about   the  existence  and 
operations  of  God :  this  is  a  fact  which  we  must 
accept,  and  which  no  explanation  that  we  may  try 
to  give  of  it  will  alter.    Morality,  and  its  promotion.  Morality 
with  the  culture  of  the  understanding  through  the  culture  of 

•  T  .  the  under- 

study of  the  ancient  uterature,  were   his   chosen  standing, 

•'  the  chosen 

themes;    and  it  is  with  his  moral  teaching,  as  I  SudSL 
have  expressly  stated,  that  we  have  specially  to  do 
in  this  Tract. 

We  return  therefore  to  the  consideration  of  that; 
and  the  first  and  chief  thing  that  claims  our  at- 
tention is  the  general  rule  in  which  Confucius  The  general 
summed  up  all  his  inculcation  of  the  duties  of  the  coi^udTiB. 
human  relations  : — "  What  ye  would  not  that  men 
should  do  to  you,  do  not  ye  do  to  them."  He 
enunciated  this  rule  several  times.     Its  similarity 


20        Christianity  and  Confucianism  Compared 
Contrast       to  ^'  tliG  golden  Tule  *'  of  our  Lord  never  fails  to 

with  the 

golden  rule     strike  the  Christian  when  he  hears  or  reads  it  for 

of  Christ. 

the  first  time.  It  is  negative,  indeed,  while  Christ's 
is  positive ;  but  the  Chinese  sage  knew  that  man 
ought  to  take  the  initiative  in  doing  to  others  what 
he  would  have  others  do  to  him.  Eight,  perhaps 
\  nine,  of  our  Ten  Commandments  are  really  pro- 
hibitions. Was  it  a  knowledge  of  the  difficulty 
which  men  find  in  giving  to  others  what  is  their 
due,  and  of  their  proneness  to  think  of  themselves 
first,  and  act  with  a  view  to  their  own  advantage, 
which  made  Confucius  give  the  negative  form  to 
his  comprehensive  rule? 
Misunder-         To  sav  that  "  he  did  not  mean  to  do  anvthing 

standing  of  i        •       i  . 

theruie of  moro  by  it  than  suggest  a  law  for  the  well-being 
of  the  State,"  preventing  retaliations  which  would 
end  in  political  anarchy :  ^ — this  is  a  strange  under- 
valuing both  of  the  man  and  his  object.  At  the 
same  time,  there  is  one  passage  in  Confucius*  history 
from  which  it  is  natural  to  conclude  that  the  rule 
was  prompted  chiefly  by  his  sentiment  of  justice  or 
instinctive  feeling  of  what  was  right  One  of  his 
contemporaries,  Lao-tsze,  the  reputed  founder  of 
Taoism,  had  been  led,  by  the  peculiar  nature  of  his 
philosophical  system,  to  teach  "  the  returning  of 
good  for  evil."  This  seemed  "strange  doctrine'^ 
to  some  of  the  disciples  of  Confucius,  and  thej 
consulted  him  about  it.     His  reply  was:  "What 

1  Dr.  Matheron's  Lecture  m.,  The  Faith*  of  the  Worlds  p.  86, 


in  their  Teaching  of  the  Whole  Duty  of  Man.        2\ 

then  will  you  return  for  good  ?   Recompense  injury  The  highest 
with  justice,  and  return  good  for  good."     Higher  ^Mch 
than  this  he  could  not  rise.  ^aJeSr 

Passing  now  to  "  the  golden  rule  of  Christ,"  we  ^'^"^  ^^  ^ 
must  pronounce  it  a  greater  error  to  argue  that  He 
was  indebted  for  it  to  what  we  may  call "  the  silver 
rule  of  Confucius."     And  yet  this  has  been  more 
than  surmised.     It  has  been  said: 

Dr.  Mathe- 
' '  That  Confucius  is  the  author  of  this  precept  is  undisputed,    ^o"'s  ^^ec- 
and  therefore  it  is  indisputable  that  Christianity  has  incorporated   of  the 
an  article  of  Chinese  morality."  World,v.%\ 

There  is   not  the   slightest  evidence  that   any  ^kS^t*"'*^ 
knowledge  of  the  Chinese  sage  or  of  his  teachings  goSIn  mie 
had  penetrated  to  Judea  at  so  early  a  time ;  and  teaSiml  of 
Christ  subjoined  to  His  rule  a  statement  of  the 
sources  from  which  He  formulated  it  in  the  words, 
"  This  is  the  law  and  the  prophets."     It  was  with 
Him  the  essence  of  the  two  commandments,  to  love 
God  supremely,  and  to  love  our  neighbours  as  our- 
selves.    This  is  the  secret  of  its  positive  form.     It  The  secret  oi 

*■  the  positive 

is  the  outgushing  demand  of  love,  while  the  other  ^"^^  ™^ 
is  the  constrained  expression  of  justice.    And  hence  °^^^^'**- 
it  was  that  in  the  same  Sermon  on  the  Mount, 
Christ  pronounced,  in  language  more  unequivocal 
and  full  than  that  of  Lao-tsze,  "  I  say  unto  you, 
Love  your  enemies;  do  good  to  them  that  hate 
you ;  pray  for  them  that  despitefuUy  use  you  and 
persecute  you  '*  (Luke  vi.  27,  28). 
I  have,  in  the  above  pages,  endeavoured  to  set 


22         Christianity  and  Confucianism  Compared 


The  defects 
of  Con- 
fucianism. 


No  glow  of 
piety  in  the 
sayings  of 
Confucius. 


forth  generally  the  teaching  of  Christianity  and 
Confucianism  on  the  whole  duty  of  man.  Where 
the  former  is  most  emphatic,  the  latter  is  all  but 
silent.  The  old  religion  of  China  was  very  de- 
fective in  what  it  required  of  man  to  God,  and 
**the  Master*'  said  very  little  to  supplement  it 
There  was  no  glow  of  piety  in  his  utterances.  He 
never  called  his  disciples  to  join  with  him  in 
adoring  God,  as  the  perfection  of  beauty,  the 
Framer  of  our  bodies,  and  the  Father  of  our  spirits, 
in  Whom  we  live  and  move  and  have  our  being, 
the  Source  of  all  our  good,  and  the  Fountain  of 
our  greatest  comfort  and  consolation.  He  left  hia 
countrymen  to  the  uncertain  gropings  and  vague 
monitions  of  natural  religion.  I  do  not  ask  my 
readers  to  join  with  me  and  pronounce  a  stem 
condemnation  of  him  for  this.  He  had  no  mission 
to  teach  religion.  He  had  no  book  to  instruct  him 
as  to  the  character  and  doings  of  God,  at  all  akin 
to  our  Scriptures.  He  had  no  gift  or  aptitude  for 
anything  like  theology. 

But  when  we  turn  to  the  Confucian  teaching  of 
the  duties  of  man  to  other  men,  we  ought  to  accord 
to  it  much  appreciation.  It  is  at  once  comprehen- 
sive and  minute.  The  analysis  of  society  into  the 
five  relations  covers  the  whole  ground.  It  is  a  piece 
of  philosophical  generalization  of  which  we  should 
not  be  slow  to  recognize  the  value  and  truth.  And 
the  duties  incumbent  in  those  relations  are  enjoined 


He  had  no 
mission  to 
teach 

religion,  no 
Scripture  to 
teach  him 
about  God. 


Much  to 
adiuire  in 
his  practical 
teaching. 


m 


their  Teaching  of  tne  Whole  Duty  of  Man.        23 


in  hundreds  of  passages  with  explicitness  and  point. 
One  is  often  grieved  to  read  the  incautious  asser-  incautious 
tions  of  writers  who  think  that  apart   from   our  ab^oJtThe* 
Christian  Scriptures  there  are  no  lessons  for  men  heathendom. 
about  their  duties,  and  that  heathendom  has  in 
consequence  never  been  anything  but  a  slough  of 
immoral  filth  and  outrageous  crime.     Such  writers 
betray  their  ignorance  of  the  systems  and  peoples 
about  which  they   affirm   such  things,  and  their 
ignorance  also  of  the  sacred  volume  which  they 
wish    to    exalt.      Their    advocacy    is    damaging 
rather  than  beneficial  to  Christianity. 

But  while  I  do  not  hesitate  to  avow  this  con-  Aiihuman 

duties  set 

viction,  I  am  at  the  same  time  persuaded  that  JSiyS°^^ 
there   is  not   a   single  human  duty  set  forth  by  S'anhT"^ 
Confucianism   which   is  not   also   recognized  and  ii^/*'^*"" 


more  fully  enjoined  by   Christianity.     In  Chris- 
tianity,   moreover,     there    is     no    admixture    of 
error    in    regard   to    the    ground    jof    the    duty,  christian 
or   the   details    of   its    requirements  from   which  freefrom 

Gixor 

the  account  of  it  in  Confucianism  is  by  no 
means  free.  In  The  Eclipse  of  Faithy  of  the 
late  Professor  Henry  Rogers,  he  says  (p.  196)  that 

"If  hia  sceptical  opponent  would  do  as  he  had  done,  and 
compile  a  selection  of  the  principal  precepts  and  maxims  from 
the  most  admirable  ethical  works  of  antiquity,  and  compare 
them  with  two  or  three  of  the  summaries  of  similar  precepts  in 
the  New  Testament,  he  would  at  once  feel  how  much  more  vivid, 
toucliing,  animated,  and  even  comprehensive  was  the  scriptural 
expression  of  the  same  truth." 


24        Christianity  and  Confucianism  Compared 

Wlien  he  so  expressed  himself,  Professor  Rogers 
was  thinking  of  the  ancient  Grecian  moralists,  and 
^nfudua  especially  of  Aristotle.  The  sage  of  China  needs 
'^™****^®'  not  to  hide  a  diminished  head,  when  placed  amidst 
the  Stagirite  and  his  compeers;  but  the  judgment 
is  true  as  well,  if  it  be  applied  to  his  sayings  and 
those  of  all  his  school,  in  comparison  with  the 
teachings  of  Christianity.  I  can  set  to  my  seal 
that  it  is  so. 

On  the  ground  of  all  that  has  been  said  above, 

I  venture  now  to  ask  the  assent  of  my  readers  to 

the  following  conclusions  regarding  the  superiority 

of  the  Christian  teaching  of  the  whole  duty  of  man. 

Christianity       I.  It  is  Superior  to  the  Confucian  teaching  be- 

attachea  ^  ^  ^  ^ 

jjj>^emi^rt.  cause  it  attaches  so  much  greater  importance  to 
rei&i^       the  duties  of  religion,  and  gives  so  much  fuller  a 
disclosure  of  their  reasonableness  and  nature.    Con- 
fucianism, indeed,  affirms  the  relation  between  men 
and  God ;  but  its  understanding  of  that  relation  is 
incomplete,  and  its  teaching  both  about  it  and  the 
duties  springing  from  it  is  consequently  imperfect. 
No  direct      It  koops   the  masscs  of  the  people  at  an  awful 
God  in  Con-   distauco  from  God.    Only  "  the  One  man,"  the  sove- 

fucianism. 

reign  of  the  Chinese  race,  is  permitted  to  present 

to  Him  directly  the  offerings  of  reverence,  gratitude, 

The  and  prayer.     Christianity,  on  the  contrary,  teaches 

God  how  God  is  never  far  from  any  one  of  us,  how 

according  to  p         • 

Christianity.  He  acccptoth  not  the  persons  of  prmces,  neither 
regardeth  the  rich  man  more  than  the  poor,  how 


in  their  Teaching  of  the  Whole  Duty  of  Man.       25 

we  all  have  to  do  with  Him  and  how  He  is  always 

near  to  all  that  call  on  Him.     Of  the  difirnity  and  The  peace, 

,  .       safety,  and 

strength,  the  peace,  security,  and  hope  which  this  \^^^ 
relation  hetween  God  and  him  imparts  to  man's 
being  and  experience  amid  the  vicissitudes  of  life, 
so  various  and  often  painful,  I  do  not  speak; — 
our  subject  is  his  duty.  But  any  system  which 
does  not  make  provision  for  the  discharge  of  our 
religious  duties,  which  does  not  in  fact  summon 
men  to  them,  and  encourage  them  to  resort  to 
them,  and  delight  themselves  in  them,  must  be 
pronounced  incomplete  and  insufficient.  Such  a 
flystem  is  Confucianism. 

II.  The  Christian  teaching  is  superior  to  the 
Confucian  because  it  makes  God  the  Guardian  of  ^a^rdflSJij 

of  human 


all  the  duties  obligatory  on  men   even   in   their  Jutie 

accor 
theb 
Moses. 


social  relations.     With  what  majesty  and  power  thrbooklof 


the  announcement,  "  I  am  the  Lord,"  or  **  I  am 
the  Lord  your  God,"  comes  in  at  the  close  of  very 
many  of  the  ordinances  in  the  Mosaic  legislation  I 
For  example,  "Therefore  shall  ye  keep  Mine 
ordinance  that  ye  commit  not  any  one  of  these 
abominable  customs,  and  that  ye  defile  not  your- 
selves therein  :  I  am  the  Lord  your  God" 
(Leviticus  xviii.  30).  "  Thou  shalt  love  thy 
neighbour  as  thyself :  I  am  the  Lord  "  (Leviticus 
xix.  18).      Not  less  powerfully  though  less  rhe-  isevr 

.      ,,  .        .  .  T       .  <  -ivT  m     i  i       Testamenl 

torically,    it    is    said    m    the    New    lestament :  teaching. 
•'Whether  therefore  ye  eat   or  drink,  or  what- 

C  2 


26        Christianity  and  Confucianism  Compared 


The 

Christian 
rule. 


Confucian- 
ism leaves 
a  mp,n  to 
his  own 
strength. 

Christianity 
assures  him 
of  Divine 
help. 


soever  ye  do,  do  all  to  the  glory  of  God" 
(1  Cor.  X.  31).  And  tliis  injunction  is  completed, 
according  to  the  Christian  rule,  by  the  same  apostle : 
"  Whatsoever  ye  do,  in  word  or  in  deed,  do  all  in 
the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  giving  thanks  to  God 
the  Father  through  Him"  (Col.  iii.  17).  Con- 
fucianism prefers  to  speak  in  this  wise :  "  If  you 
do  this,  if  you  do  not  do  that,  how  can  you  regard 
yourself  as  a  man  ?"  That  is  all  very  well.  But 
it  leaves  man  to  fight  the  battle  of  temptation  in 
his  own  strength.  He  is  strongest,  however,  when 
he  is  most  humble.  The  assurance  of  God's  presence 
and  guardianship  doubly  arms  him.  It  helps  him, 
if  he  fall,  to  rise  again ;  and  if  he  seem  to  fail  or 
be  overthrown,  he  can  yet  write  victory  on  his 
shield.  To  use  the  words  of  the  Apostle  Peters 
**  This  is  acceptable,  if,  for  conscience  towards  God, 
a  man  endure  grief,  suffering  wrongfully"  (1 
Peter  iL  19). 

III.  StiU  looking  merely  at  the  duties  springing 
out  of  the  social  relations,  the  Christian  teaching 
is  superior  to  the  Confucian,  because  the  motive 
on  which  it  requires  their  discharge  is  nobler  and 
more  powerful.  That  motive,  we  have  seen,  is 
love,  while  the  Confucian  motive  is  the  sentiment 
of  justice  or  right.  "Now  love  takes  the  per- 
formances out  of  the  category  of  duty  in  which 
there  is  the  element  of  constraint,  and  transforms 
them  into  that  of  gracious  ministry.     The  love 


CJhristianity 
appeals  to 
the  motive 
of  love. 


in  their  Teaching  of  the  Whole  Duty  of  Man.       27 

will  always  operate  in  the  sphere  of  right ;  but  its 
constraint  is  of  itself.  At  the  very  best  the  doer 
of  justice  is  a  servant  of  God,  but  the  doer  of  love 
is  a  child  of  God.  The  service  of  duty  may  be 
slow  and  grudging ;  the  service  of  love  is  prompt  ^ow  love 
and  untiring.  Duty  asks,  "Is  this  enough?" 
Love  asks,  "  Can  I  do  anything  more  ?"  This  is 
the  operation  of  all  love.  Can  its  range  and 
effectiveness  over  the  whole  being  be  calculated 
when  the  true  nature  of  the  Christian  attribute  is 
appreciated,  when  its  measure,  as  has  been  pointed 
out  above,  is  the  love  with  which  Christ  loved  us  ? 

ly.  The  Christian   teaching  in  regard   to  the  christian 
five  relations  of  society  themselves  is  better  than  fucian 

_^^        "^  teaching 

the  Confucian.     We  have  spoken  of  the  relation  J^'tL'^''''^^^* 
between  parent  and  child,  and  of  the  filial  duty  ^tS'a^d 
obligatory  on  the    child.      It   includes    in   Con-  ^itSe<L 
fucianism  the  worship  of  the  deceased  parent  as 
well    as  of    remoter  ancestors.      Honour  to    the 
living  parent  is  what  Christianity  requires ;  but  it 
knows  nothing  of  the  worship  of  the  dead,  and  of 
oblations  and  prayers  to  them.     We  accept  with 
sorrow  the  fact  that  our  parents   have  gone  by 
death    away  from    our  circle;    we    cherish    the 
memory  of  them  and  seek  to  copy  their  virtues ; 
but  we  find  that  it  would  be  in  vain  to  try  and 
have  communion  with   them   over   any  religious 
feast.     Our  belief  and  practice  are  more  true  and 
healthy  than  those  of  the  Confucian. 


it^        Christianity  and  Confucianism  Compared 

And  while  the  requirements  of  filial  duty  in  the 
latter  are  so  stringent  that  I  have  often  known  them 
become  a  grievous  yoke,  a  burden  which  Chinese 
sons  were  unable  to  bear,  little  is  found  in  the  Con- 
fucian writings  to  instruct  or  caution  parents  in  their 
treatment  of  their  children.     More  than  enough  is 
said  of  the  rights  of  the  parent,  less  than  enough 
of   the  rights   of  the   children.     There   are   two 
texts  in  the  New  Testament,  of  the  wisdom  of 
which  my  readers  will  not  entertain  any  doubt, 
^eptT       while  yet  I   have  always   found   them  very  dis- 
to  thJduty*   tasteful  not  only  to  Chinese  literati  but  also  to 
tochUdJ?n     the  people.     One  is  that  in  which  the  Apostle 
to  the  Paul  wrote    to    the  Corinthians:    "The  children 


ought  not  to  lay  up  for  the  parents,  but  the 
parents  for  the  children"  (2  Cor.  xii  14).  The 
other  is  also  from  St.  Paul  (Colossians  iii.  21) : 
"  Fathers,  provoke  not  your  children,  that  they  be 
not  discouraged." 

Another  of  the  five  relations  of  society  is  that 
of  husband  and  wife; — "it  is  the  one,  indeed," 
as  Chinese  writers  say,  *'  out  of  which  all  the  other 
relations  grow."  And  many  fine  and  beautiful 
sentiments  are  found  in  them  on  marriage.  But 
The  position  j^q  positiou  of  womau  in  China  has  always  been 

of  woman  in  a  •' 

always  an      ^u  inferior  one.     Girls  are  of  small  account  in  a 

inferior  oDo.  family  as  Compared  with  boys.     Infanticide,  mainly 

owing,  I  believe,  to  the  poverty  of  the  people,  is 

more  common  than  in  any  western  country,  but  it 


in  their  Teaching  of  the  Whole  Duty  of  Man.        29 
is  always   female  infanticide.     A  woman   should  The 

,  prevalaxiC6 

not  have  any  mind  of  her  own,  nor  take  the  in-  ot  infanti- 

itiative  even  in  what  is  good.^    If  she  come  out  of 

the  strict  seclusion  of    her  own   apartments  and 

domestic  duties,  her  influence  will  prove  to  be  for 

eviL^    There  is  indeed  only  one  wife,  "  one  correct 

wife,'*  in  a  family,  hut  from  the  oldest  times  concu-  concubina«e 

the  rule  in 

binage  has  been  the  rule  in  China.  The  ancient  cMna. 
Y^o,  whose  beneficent  influence,  according  to 
Confucius,  "corresponded  to  that  of  Heaven,  and 
whose  virtue  was  so  great  that  the  people  could 
find  no  name  for  it,"^  yet  gave  his  two  daughters 
in  marriage  to  the  same  man  at  the  same  time.* 
The  life  of  woman  in  China  is  truly  a  hard  and  ^^^^j^^iJ* 
inferior  one.  It  is  not  till  she  becomes  a  mother  K^one. 
that  she  shares  in  the  regard  due  to  the  higher 
party  in  the  relation  of  parent  and  child.  Even 
then  she  is  subject  to  the  law  of  "  the  three 
obediences,"  ^  and  is  bound,  if  a  widow,  to  obey  her 
eldest  son,  as  she  had,  in  the  earlier  stages  of  her 
life,  been  bound  to  obey  first  her  parents,  and  then 
her  husband.  I  have  often  thanked  the  Apostle 
Peter  in  spirit  for  his  words,  *'  Ye  husbands,  give  christian 

teaching  on 

honour  to  the  woman  as  unto  the  weaker  vessel,  as  ahusband'i 

duties. 

being  also  joint-heirs  of  the  grace  of  life"  (1  Peter 

1  The  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  in.,  p.  350. 

*  The  She  King,  or  Boole  of  Ancient  Poetry,  p.  347. 

*  Confucian  Analects,  vin.,  ch.  19. 

*  The  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  m.,  p.  36. 

■  See  the  Prolegomena  to  my  Chinese  Classics,  i.,  pp.  104,  KM. 


30        Christianity  and  Confucianism  Compared 
Nothing        iii.  7).    In  all  my  readino;  in  Chinese  literature  I  have 

parallel  to  '  .  . 

this  in  Con-  not  met  with  so  kindly  and  arenerous  a  sentiment. 
There  is  not  so  much  to  object  to  in  the  Con- 
fucian teaching  about  the  other  three  relations  oi 
society.  I  pass  on  to  the  last  point  of  superiority 
in  the  Christian  teaching,  with  the  general  remark 
that  too  much  authority  is  assigned  to  the  superior 
member  in  each  category,  and  too  much  deference 
required  from  the  inferior. 

Y.  The  Christian  teaching  of  human  duty  is 
superior   to   the   Confucian,   because   it    is    com- 
mended and  enforced  by  the  perfect  example  of  its 
of(?)SJSS^^  Author.     "  What  I  wish  to  do,"  said  Mencius,  the 
The  Chinese  ablcst  cxpouuder  of  the  Confucian  system:  "What 
BootTit'pt.*'  I  wish  to  do  is  to  learn  to  be  like  Confucius." 

He  goes  on  to  adduce  the  estimate  of  "the 
Master  "  given  by  several  of  "  the  disciples,"  with 
the  opinion  of  one  of  whom  we  must  here  content 
ourselves,  that  of  Yu  Jo  : — 

"  There  is  the  Ch'l-Hn  among  quadrupeds,  the  phoenix  among 
birds,  the  Tha,i  mountain  among  ant-hills,  and  the  Ho  and  the 
sea  among  rain-pools.  (Though  they  are  different  in  degree),  they 
are  the  same  in  kind  ;  and  so  the  sages  among  men  are  also  the 
same  in  kind.  But  they  stand  out  from  their  fellows,  and  rise 
above  the  crowd  ;  and  from  the  birth  of  mankind  till  now  there 
never  has  been  one  so  complete  as  Confucius." 

I  have  no  pleasure  in  shattering  this  idol,  nor 

would  I  lay  a  rude  hand  or  an  effacing  finger  on 

the  reputation  of  the  Chinese  "  Master."     He  was 

.  a  great  man  and  a  good  man,  and  deserved  well 

of  his  own  country  and  of  the  world.     Yet  it  is  a 


i..  2.  22. 


in  their  Teaching  oj  the  Whole  Duty  of  Man.        31 

true  saying  that  "  the  hest  of  men  are  but  men  at 
the  best."  He  was  not  a  perfect  character.  On 
one  occasion,  immediately  after  enunciating  his 
-  silver  rule,"  he  subjoined  :  Sl'ptlsct 

character, 
"  In  the  way  of  the  superior  man  there  are  four  things,  to  not    according 
one  of  which  have  I  as  yet  attained.     To  serve  my  father  as  I    confessiou 
would  require  my  son  to  serve  me  :  to  this  I  have  not  attained ; 
to  serve  my  ruler  as  I  would  require  my  minister  to  serve  me  : 
to  this  I   have  not  attained  ;  to  serve  my  elder  brother  as  1 
would  require  my  younger  brother  to  serve  me  :  to  this  I  have 
not  attained  ;  to  set  the  example  in  behaving  to  a  friend  as  I 
would  require  him  to  behave  to  me:  to  this  I  have  not  attained. "  * 

The  Chinese  character  which  I  have  here  trans- 
lated by  "  I,"  is  the  personal  name  of  Confucius, 
and  ties  his  readers  down  to  accept  his  words  as 
his  own  acknowledgment  of  his  personal  imper- 
fection. They  are  not  the  words  of  a  sham 
**  humility,"  as  Chinese  commentators  contend, 
nor  an  example  merely  of  the  way  in  which  men 
should  measure  others  as  they  measure  themselves ; 
but  we  do  not  think  less  of  him,  we  think  indeed 
more  of  him,  because  he  was  thus  conscious  of 
his  own  incompetencies,  and  that  he  fell  short  of 
his  own  standard  of  duty. 

One  of  the  four  things,  again,  which  Confucius  ^J^^^* 
was  fond  of  teaching  was  "  truthfulness ;  "  2  and  '^««*- 
yet  it  is  difficult  to  maintain  that,  according  to  our 
idea  of  the  duty  of  a  historian,  he  was  not  untruthful 
in  his  accounts  of  men  and  events.^   I  cannot  resist 

^  The  Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  13.  4.    2  Confucian  Analects, 
•  S«e  the  Prolegomena  to  The  Chinese  CUmicf,  Vol  v.  pp, 


J52         Christianity  and  Confucianism  Com/pared 


Confucius 
was  not 
truthful  in 
his  accounts 
of  men  and 
events. 


No  con- 
sciousness of 
sin  in  Christ, 

His  appeal 
to  His 
enemies. 


A  sinless 
High  Priest 
needed  by 
us. 


The 

testimony  of 
enemies. 


the  impression  that  his  example  in  this  respect  has 
lowered  the  standard  of  this  important  virtue 
among  his  countrymen. 

Confucius  was  not  a  perfect  character ;  and  I 
appeal  to  my  readers  whether,  if  any  acknowledg- 
ment on  the  part  of  Christ,  similar  to  that  which 
I  have  just  adduced,  were  to  he  found  in  our  Gospels, 
it  would  not  sound  very  strange,  and  he  disturbing 
to  their  faith.  Christ  could  say,  on  the  contrary,  to 
his  enemies,  "Which  of  you  convicteth  me  of  sin" 
(John  viii.  46)  ?  After  nearly  nineteen  centuries, 
throughout  Christendom,  the  instances  are  very 
exceptional  of  any  men  who  have  ventured  to 
insinuate  a  judgment  concerning  Him,  different 
from  that  of  the  writer  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews :  "  He  was  in  all  points  tempted  like  as 
{we  are,  yet)  without  sin"  (iv.  15).  "Such  a  high 
priest  became  us,  holy,  guileless,  undefiled,  separated 
from  sinners"  (vii.  26).  Even  such  men  as 
Rousseau,  and  the  late  John  Stuart  Mil],  whom 
we  must  class  among  unbelievers,  have  borne 
concurrent  testimony  as  to  the  impression  made 
by  His  life  and  words  upon  their  minds.^ 

Christ  was  indeed  the  perfect  Teacher,  and  the 
perfect  Exemplar  of  what  He  taught  The  more 
that  we  press  on  to  be  like  Him,  the  more  do  we 

^  See  Present  Day  Tract,  No.  iiL ,  Chritt  the  Central  Evidence 
of  Oliristianity,  by  the  Rev.  Principal  Cairns.  See  th^jre  also, 
pp.  12-16,  the  discriminating  observations  on  **  Modeni  Theoriei 

of  Christ's  Moral  Excellence,'' 


in  their  Teaching  of  the  Whole  Duty  of  Man.        33 

feel  that  we  fail  to  be  so.     But  He  said,  ''  He  that  Christ  our 
hath  seen  Me,  hath  seen  the  Father ;  "  and  the  example. 
more  conscious  we  are  of  copying  His  example,  and  revelation  of 

.  ■^•'       °  .  the  Father. 

endeavouring  to  realize  in  ourselves  "  the  mind  _ 

O  Our  peace  m 

that  was  in  Him,"  the  greater  is  our  peace,  and  the  Ji^/pJ^g^es-*^ 
brighter   our   hope   that   we  are  going   on  to  be  ^d!'^" 
"  perfect,  even  as  our  heavenly  Father  is  perfect." 

I  have  not,  in  writing  this  Tract,  played  the 
part  of  an  advocate  whose  object  is  to  win  his 
cause.  My  endeavour  has  been  to  describe  the 
case  of  both  systems  on  the  point  laid  down  at  the 
outset, — to  describe  it  dispassionately,  and  yet 
sufficiently  for  my  readers  to  form  a  judgment  on 
the  subject  discussed  themselves. 

I  think  that  the  evidence  of  facts  bears  out  the 
conclusion  as  to  the  superiority  of  Christianity  to 
which  I  have  come.     It  is,  indeed,  an  eternal  truth  An  appeal  to 

the  fruits  of 

that  "by  their  fruits"  we  know  both  men  and  the  two 

•'  systems 

systems  ;  but  though  I  have  tried,  over  a  long  series 
of  years,  to  weigh  the  moral  condition  of  the 
Chinese  people  as  compared  with  our  own,  and 
that  of  other  nominally  Christian  peoples,  I  have 
felt  the  difficulty  of  doing  so  in  an  even  balance, 
and  there  has  frequently  occurred  to  me  the 
warning  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount:  ** Judge 
not  that  ye  be  not  judged." 

Take  the  Chinese  people  as  a  whole,  apart  from 
*He  points   on   which  I  have   already  given  my 

inion,  and  there  is  much  about  them  to  like  and 


34        Christianity  and  ConfucianisTn  Compared 


Chinese 
virtues. 


even  to  admire.  They  are  cheerful,  temperate, 
industrious,  and  kindly ;  and  in  those  respects  they 
will  bear  a  comparison,  perhaps  a  favourable  com- 
parison, with  the  masses  of  our  own  population. 
The  ancient  and  universal  use  of  tea  as  their 
ordinary  drink  has  been  beneficial  to  their  habits. 
I  found  those  of  them  who  had  any  position  in 
society  for  the  most  part  faithful  to  their  engage- 
ments and  true  to  their  word.  I  thought  of  them 
better,  both  morally  and  socially,  when  I  left  them, 
than  when  I  first  went  among  them,  more  than 
thirty  years  before.  Their  civilisation  has  developed 
under  very  different  conditions  from  our  own.  They 
are  less  enlightened,  very  much  less  enlightened, 
and  less  capable  of  comprehensive  views,  and  more 
superstitious.  They  have  learned  almost  nothing 
from  abroad,  and  are  more  conservative,  thinking 
much  of  the  past,  and  little  of  the  future.  Still 
they  deserve  our  esteem ;  and  they  measure  for- 
eigners from  their  own  standpoints,  weighing  them 
as  well  as  they  can  in  the  balances  of  "  benevolence, 
righteousness,  propriety,  wisdom,  and  sincerity." 
Their  Confucianism  has  done  much  for  them,  and 
its  teaching  of  human  duty  has  modified  the 
practical  influence  which  the  systems  of  Taoism 
and  Buddhism  have  on  multitudes  of  them. 
The  short-         Qu  tho  othep  hand,   we  ourselves  in  this  and 

comings  of 

Christendom.  jjr^Q  other  uatious  of  Christendom  come  far  short 
of  the    standard    of  duty   and    character   which 


Their 

civilisation, 
enlighten- 
ment, and 
sui)erstition. 


Their  con- 
servatism. 


in  thdr  Teaching  of  the  Whole  Duty  of  Man.        35 

we  ought  to  be  aiming  after.     Where  our  Chris-  The  fruits  o< 
tian  principles,  religious  and  moral,  indeed,  have  incompar- 

^  ,  ,  ably  better 

free  course,  as  they  have  in  millions,  they  pro-  t^au  those 

duce  a  humanity  with    which    there   is    nothing  S^e™ 

in  China  worthy  to  be  compared ;  but  in  our  social  prindpiS 

and  national  condition  there  are  many  things  that  00*1^^!^^ 

may  well  make  us  lay  our  hands  on  our  mouths. 

and  cease  from  judging  hardly  of  the  heathen 

Chinese.     The  best  promise  of  a  better  state  for 

ourselves  and  the  world  is  in  the  growing  conviction 

that  we  need  to  rise  more  to  the  height  of  our 

privileges,    and   in  the   individual  and   combined 

efforts  constantly  called  forth  to  remove  evils  that 

are  brought  to  light.      This   is   one    remarkable 

feature  of  the  different  influence  which  the  two 

systems  that  we  have   been   comparing  have   on 

their  adherents.    Confucianism  tends  to  make  men  Confucian- 
ism makes 

satisfied  with  what  they  are,  while  true  Christianity  ^^"fied!'    ' 
makes  them  dissatisfied  that  they  are  not  better,  m^kes  thS 
Then  the  former  system  has  not  in  it  an  impulsive  with  them- 
spirit  of  propagandism.     I  have  hep-rd  the  saying 
among  the  people  that  "the  Four  Books  do  not 
go  out  beyond  the  four  seas  environing  the  Middle 
Land ; "  whereas  the  last  command  of  Christ  was 
that  His  followers  should  "  go  and  make  disciples  ag^essive 
of   all  the   nations."      No    one  who  has  become  chS^^ 
imbued  with  the  principles  of  Christianity  can  be 
satisfied  till  he  has  realised  "  a  new  moral  world  " 
in  himself,  and  sees  a  real  progress  to  the  same 


36        GhriBtiamty  and  Confucianism  Compared. 

goal  in  tlie  manners  and  institutions  of  his  own 
country  and  in  the  world  at  large.  How  so  many 
centuries  have  elapsed  since  the  delivery  of  the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount,  and  the  "  lifting  up  "  on  the 
i-be  slow       Cross,  and  the  risinsr  from  the  tomb,  and  Christen- 

proprress  of  ^ 

a^yste^!^  dom  should  remain  so  imperfectly  Christian,  and  so 
great  a  portion  of  mankind  be  still  non- Christian  : 
— this  is  a  mystery  which  I  will  not  try  to  fathom. 

cKtilnH"  But  there  is  a  spirit  in  Christianity  that  nerves 
its  members  to  continue  the  struggle  with  what  is 
evil  in  and  around  themselves,  and  maintains  the 
consecration  of  time  and  labour  and  talents  to 
bring  "  all  the  nations "  to  the  fellowship  of  the 
Gospel.  If  we  are  to  do  our  part  in  weaning  the 
Chinese  from  their  inordinate  attachment  to  their 
sage  and  his  teaching,  and  bringing  the  nation  to 
"mew  its  mighty  age,  and  kindle  her  undazzled 
eyes  at  the  full  midday  beam,"  it  can  only  be  by 

How  the       our  showing  that,  in  all  our  intercourse  with  them, 

to  be  won  to  politically,  commercially,  and  in  other  ways,  we 
are  ruled  by  the  principles  of  love  and  righteous- 
ness, which  blend  together  in  "  the  golden  rule " 
of  Christ,  "  Whatsoever  ye  would  that  men  should 
do  unto  you,  even  so  do  ye  also  unto  them." 


A  A 


THE  ZEND-AVESTA 

AND 

THE   RELIGION  OF  THE   PARSIS 

BY 

J.  MURRAY   MITCHELL,  M.A.,  LL.D. 


^tsumeni  (xt  the  TxacU 


Of  the  great  religions  of  antiquity  that  have  survived  to  the 
present  time,  the  system  which  is  affirmed  by  its  followers  to 
have  been  promulgated  by  the  famous  Zoroaster  is  one  of  the 
most  remarkable.  It  is  now  professed  only  by  the  Parsees  of 
India  and  their  brethren,  the  Zoroastrians  of  Persia  ;  but  it  was 
once  a  widely-extended  and  influential  faith,  with  notable  cha- 
racteristics pecuHar  to  itself.  The  sacred  book  of  the  Zoroas- 
trians is  the  Zend-Avesta  (or  Avesta).  Of  the  founder  of  the 
religion  we  cannot  speak  with  certainty  ;  and  the  same  thing 
may  be  said  of  the  history  of  Zoroastrianism  up  to  the  time  of 
Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes.  Little  was  known  in  Europe 
regarding  the  system  till  177 1. 

The  Tract  examines  in  succession  the  theology,  the  ritual, 
the  ethics,  and  the  jurisprudence  of  the  Avesta.  The  theology 
is  not  homogeneous  ;  the  Avesta  contains  a  quasi  monotheism, 
dualism,  and  polytheistic  nature-worship.  Starting  with  the 
same  root-ideas  as  Hinduism,  Zoroastrianism  developed  them 
differently  ;  it  rose  nearer  to  Monotheism,  and  it  avoided  Pan- 
theism. One  great  excellence  of  the  system  is  that  it  connects 
nothing  immoial  with  the  character  or  worship  of  God.  Its 
most  distinctive  mark  is  its  strong  duahsm  ;  it  asserts  the 
existence  from  eternity  of  two  principles  or  powers — one  good, 
one  evil :  the  former  the  creator  of  all  good,  the  latter  the  creator 
of  all  evil.  The  Zoroastrian  must  share  in  the  great  struggle 
between  good  and  evil  ;  which  is  finally  to  issue  in  the  triumph 
of  the  former.  There  is  no  image-worship  in  Zoroastrianism. 
Fire  is  the  great  visible  object  of  homage.  But  everything  in 
the  good  creation  is,  or  may  be,  worshipped.  Homage  is  ren- 
dered both  to  the  outward  object  and  the  being  presiding  over  it. 

Nothing  in  the  Zoroastrian  ritual  is  more  remarkable  than 
its  elaborate  purifications  in  connection  with  ceremonial  defile- 
ment. Among  Gentile  religions,  Zoroastrianism  ranks  high  in 
point  of  morality ;  but  the  whole  Avesta  is  lacking  in  depth  both 
of  reflection  and  emotion.  Finally,  a  brief  comparison  is  made 
between  Zoroastrianism  and  Christianity. 


THE    ZEND-AVESTA 

AND    TH> 

RELIGION   OF  THE   PARSiS. 


Iery  few   of  the  religions  of  antiquity  ofthe 

'-'  J.        V     surviving 

have  survived  to  the  present  day.     For  ^njgj?^,^' 
example,  the  impure  divinities  of  Syria  Sm'isl^e  ol 
and  the  brutish   gods  of  Egypt  have  Sikabfe'^ 
completely  disappeared. 

Peor  and  Baalim 

Forsake  their  temples  dim.  •  . 

Nor  is  Osiris  seen 

In  Memphian  grove  or  green, 

Trampling  the  unshowered  grass  with  lowings  loud. 

The  divinities  of  Greece  and  Borne  have,  in  like 
manner,  passed  away.  Zeus  no  longer  sways  from 
the  summit  of  Olympus  his  sceptre  over  "gods 
and  men  ;  "  and  a  Christian  church  now  occupies 
the  spot  on  which  stood  in  ancient  days  the  temple 
of  Jupiter,  the  guardian  of  the  Capitol. 

Of  those  ancient  systems  of  religion  that  have 
come  down  to  our  times  one  of  the  most  remarkable 


The  Zend-Avesta^  and  the 


is  the  one  whicli  is  embodied  in  the  Zend-Avesta.^ 

The  faith   propounded  in  the  Avesta  is  usually 

First  called  Zoroastrianism ;  since,  accordinar  to  its  pro- 

inculcated        .  .  •    •      i,     •         i  -11,111 

by  zoro-       fessors,  it  was  ono:inally  inculcated  by  the  celebrated 

aster.  . 

Zoroaster.     It  is  also  frequently  called  Parsiism, 

still  as  being  still  followed  by  the  interesting  body  of 

pLSs  people  in  Western  India,  known  by  the  name  of 

Pdrsis,  and  also  by  the  small  remnant  of  the  same 

race  in  Persia. 

There  are  not  a  few  questions  connected  with 
the  Avesta  and  the  history  of  Zoroastrianism  which 
are  still  matters  of  keen  controversy.  We  shall 
not  enter  into  these,  but  shall,  in  a  great  degree, 
confine  our  attention  to  matters  in  which  there 
exists  a  large  measure  of  agreement  among  Ori- 
ental scholars.  Happily,  these  are  not  few  in 
number;  nor  are  they  by  any  means  devoid  of 
interest.  In  these  days,  when  so  much  attention 
is  paid  to  the  comparative  study  of  religions,  the 
Avesta  faith  ought  by  no  means  to  be  overlooked. 
ithas  The  system  possesses  some  striking  peculiarities. 

S^'a^*^^  Farther,  it  has  had  a  very  remarkable   history. 
totory^^     Most  important  problems  are  involved  in  its  re- 
lations   to    Hinduism,   Judaism,   the   Babylonian 
religion,  the  Gnostic  heresies,  and  the  great  system 
of  Manicheeism;    and  in  the  Mithraic  mysteries,  ^ 

^  The  name  Avesta  is  more  correct  than  Zend-Avesta.  More 
exact  would  be  the  spelling  Avastdj  but  we  adopt  the  more 
usual  form. 


Religion  of  the  Farsis. 


which  were  mainly  of  Persian  origin,  its  influence 
spread  extensively  over  the  Roman  empire,  and 
even  as  far  west  as  Britain. 

Much  had  been  written  regarding  Zoroaster,  and 
many  had  been  the  speculations  regarding  his 
doctrines ;  but  no  satisfactory  conclusions  could 
be  reached  so  long  as  the  Avesta  remained  un- 
known. Even  before  the  Christian  era  Zoroaster  had 
become  a  mythical  personage,  and  forged  oracles 
were  ascribed  to  him  which  only  increased  the 
perplexity.  The  laborious  researches  of  scholars  Dr.  Hyde'i 
like  Dr.  Thomas  Hyde^  are  deserving  of  high 
respect ;  but  such  men  had  to  reason  from  data 
always  insufficient  and  often  untrustworthy.  A 
new  era  in  the  study  of  Zoroastrianism  began  with 


researches. 


the  labours  of  Anque til  du  Perron.     The  story  of  Anquetiidn 

^  -^  Pen-on. 

the  travels  and  researches  of  this  enthusiastic  ex- 
plorer reads  almost  like  a  romance.  He  went  to 
India  in  quest  of  the  venerable  book  ascribed  to 
Zoroaster;  found  it  among  the  Parsi  priests  of 
Surat;  and,  after  years  of  toDsome  investigation 
into  its  doctrines,  returned  in  triumph  with  hi& 
prize  to  Europe.  He  published  a  French  transla- 
tion of  it,  with  accompanying  dissertations,  in  1771. 
The  work  at  once  excited  the  greatest  interest. 
This,  after  some  time,  began  to  diminish,  mainly 

*  Veterum  Persarum  et  Parthorum  ct  Medorum  religionia  his- 
toria.  2nd  edition.  Oxford,  1760.  The  first  edition,  with  a 
slightly  different  title,  was  publisiied  at  Oxford  in  1700. 


The  Zend-Avesta,  and  the 


ID  consequence  of  the  faulty  character  of  the  trans- 
lation, which  was  frequently  very  obscure,  and 
not  infrequently  incorrect.  During  rather  more 
than  the  last  fifty  years,  however,  the  study  of  the 
Avesta  has  been  prosecuted  by  a  succession  of  able 
men  with  unflagging  zeal,  and  with  no  inconsider- 
able success. 
Date  of  the        We  cau  traco  the  Avesta,  as  we  find  it,  up  to 

Avesta, 

the  time  of  the  Sasanian  dynasty  in  Persia.  The 
Persian  empire  was  restored  in  the  year  226  after 
Christ  by  Ardashir  Babegan,  the  first  of  the 
Sasanian  line.  He  was  a  man  of  no  common  force 
of  character ;  bold  and  successful  as  a  warrior, 
and  skilful  in  administration.  In  building  up  his 
kingdom  he  called  religion  to  his  aid.  He  earnestly 
sought  to  collect  the  writings  that  inculcated  the 
ancient  faith  of  Zoroaster;  and  several  of  his 
successors  persevered  in  the  attempt.  The  canon 
of  the  Avesta  was  fixed  under  Sh^pur  II.,  about 
the  year  350 ;  revision  and  condensation  were 
effected  in  the  reign  of  Khosru  Parviz,  between 
631  and  579.  The  Avesta,  as  we  possess  it,  may 
thus  be  safely  traced  back  at  least  to  the  sixth 
state  of  the    conturv  after  Christ.     We  must  allow  for  errors 

text.  '       .      . 

of  transcription  in  the  case  of  what  had  long  been 
a  dead  language.  Uncouth  and  imintelligible 
phrases  abound  in  the  work ;  the  text  is  often 
manifestly  incorrect,  and  critics  are  sorely  tempted 
to   try   the   undesirable  expedient  of  conjectural 


Religion  of  the  Parsis. 


emendation.     Still,  on  the  whole,  here  stands  the 
Avesta,  very  nearly  as  it  must  have  stood  some 
thirteen,  or  even  fifteen,  centuries  ago.  But  farther: 
although  collected  in  the  days  of  the  Sasanian  kings, 
we  have  no  reason  to  believe  that  it  was  then 
composed.    An  extensive  literature  existed  in  Persia  ^^^^.^ 
before  the  Macedonian  conquest.     The  tradition  of  Macedoufan 
the  Parsisis  that  Alexander — *'the  accursed  wretch  <'*^^<i^^='^ 
Sikandar,"  as  they  call  him — burnt  all  their  books, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  fragments.    The  tradi- 
tion cannot  count  for  much ;  for  the  great  conqueror 
was  generally  tolerant  in  matters  of  religion,  and 
pursued,  as  far  as  possible,  a  policy  of  conciliation. 
The  disappearance  of  the  ancient  books  is  rather  Disappear- 

^*-  ,  anceofthe 

to  be  regarded  as  the  result  of  the  centuries  of  ^f^f- 
confusion  that  succeeded  the  Macedonian  conquest 
over  the  countries  in  which  the  Zoroastrian  faith 
generally  prevailed.     Be  this  as  it  may,  we  have  The  greater 
reason  to  believe  that  by  far  the  greatest  part  of  ^:;^^^^^^ 
the  Avesta  was  composed  at  various  dates  ranging  beSKaie 
over  the  space  from  about  the  seventh  to  the  fourth  cenSy  b.c. 
century  before  Christ.     Portions  may  be  still  more  portions 

•^  ^  _  more  recent 

recent ;  and  it  is  possible,  and  even  probable,  that 
some  additions  were  made  as  late  as  the  fourth 
century  after  Christ,  or  even  later.  The  work,  as 
it  stands,  is  not  only  fragmentary,  but  chaotic ; 
wonderfully  little  skill  having  been  exhibited  in 
the  arrangement  of  its  component  parts. 

About  Zoroaster  himself  we  must  say  a  few 


The  Zend-Avesta,  and  the 


probably . 
Mede. 


words.  Some  able  men  doubt  his  very  existence, 
and  find  in  his  history  only  a  mythical  description 
of  elemental  war  —  an  atmospheric  storm.^  On 
the  whole,  however,  we  hold  that  he  actually 
Zoroaster^  existed,  and  that  he  was  possibly  a  Bactrian,  but 
probably  a  Mede.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that, 
while  the  Medes  were  under  Assyrian  dominion, 
their  religion  had  to  some  extent  become  mixed 
with  that  of  the  conquerors  ;  but  that,  when  the 
foreign  yoke  was  thrown  off,  an  earnest  attempt 
was  made  to  revive  the  ancient  Aryan  faith.  With 
this  reformation  we  may  perhaps,  provisionally, 
connect  the  name  of  Zoroaster.  Thus,  in  round 
numbers,  we  can  with  some  probability  assign  his 
era  to  the  commencement  of  the  sixth  century,  or 
perhaps  610  b.c.  Such,  at  least,  was  Dr.  Hang's 
final  opinion.^ 

On  these  questions,  however,  we  can  as  yet 
attain  to  no  more  than  plausible  conjecture,  and 
all  dogmatism  is  out  of  place.^     Even  the  name  of 


Hit  era. 


*  Professor  Darmesteter  and  others.  See  his  treatise,  Ormuzd 
et  Ahriman,  passim. 

'  Haug,  who  at  first  maintained  that  Zoroaster  might  have 
been  as  ancient  as  Moses,  and  must  have  been  before  1000  B.C., 
in  later  years  altered  his  opinion,  and  supported  the  view  uuw 
expressed.  It  nearly  agrees  with  that  of  the  Parsis.  But  the 
question  is  by  no  means  finally  settled.  Professors  Roth  and 
Tiele  will  not  admit  the  older  part  of  the  Avesta  to  be  later 
than  from  1000  to  800  B.C. 

*  M.  Renan  justly  remarks  :  II  n'est  pas  bon  dans  ces  difficile* 
etudes  de  croire  tenir  I'absolue  v6rite. — Journal  AaicUique, 
1880,  p.  27. 


Religion  of  the  Parsis. 


tlie  great  teacher — in  Zend,  Zarathustra — has  re- 
ceived no  satisfactory  explanation.  We  may  be- 
lieve— stillj  it  is  only  a  plausible  conjecture — tbat 
the  Avesta  religion  arose  to  the  south-east  of  the 
Caspian  Sea,  among  a  race  still  semi-nomadic,  but 
inclining  more  and  more  to  pastoral  and  agricultural 
Ufe.     It  seems  to  have  powerfully  affected  Bactria  Late  «nd 

^  \  Blow  growth 

and  Media,  before  it  entered  Persia.     In  the  last-  of  zoro- 

'  astriamsm 

named  country  the  precepts  of  the  Avesta  were  ^^  Persia. 
but  partially  submitted  to  during  the  earlier  reigns, 
from  that  of  Cyrus  downwards ;  but  the  power  of 
the  Magi — the  priests — with  a  short  interruption 
after  the  death  of  the  Pseudo-Smerdis,  appears  to 
have  gone  on  steadily  increasing,  until  the  Mace- 
donian conquest  shattered  it  to  pieces.  The  suc- 
cessors of  Alexander  reigned  eighty  years  over 
Persia.  Under  the  Parthian  power  which  suc- 
ceeded, the  Magi  slowly  recovered  a  certain  mea- 
sure of  their  authority ;  and  Yalkhash  (Yolegeses), 
one  of  the  later  kings,  seems  to  have  begun  the 
work  of  collecting  the  scattered  fragments  of 
the  sacred  books.  The  Parthian  dominion  was  its  high 
overthrown  by  Ardashir  Babegan,  who  has  been  second 
mentioned  above;  and,  under  him  and  his  empire. 
successors,  Zoroastrianism  obtained  a  far  more 
influential  position  than  it  had  ever  previously 
held.  This  it  retained  until  Persia  was  conquered 
by  the  Arabs,  in  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century 
after  Christ. 


10 


The  Zend-Avesta,  and  the 


Division  of 
the  Avesta. 


Prayers  and 

eacrificial 

rites. 


rhe 

legislation 
of  the 
Avesta. 


Objects 
invoked. 


The  Avesta,  as  it  now  stands,  is  not  so  large  in 
size  as  tlie  Christian  Bible.  It  consists  of  the 
following  parts: — 

The  Yasna,   including  the  five  G^thas,  or 
Hymns. 

The  Yandidad. 

The  YisPARAD. 

The  Yashts. 

A  few  short  prayers  called  Afrigan,  Nyavish, 
and  Gah. 

The  SiROZAH,  or  Calendar  of  the  thirty  days 
of  the  month. 

The  meaning  of  the  word  Yasna  is  sacrifice. 
This  division  of  the  Avesta  contains  the  prayers 
offered  along  with  sacrificial  rites.  The  Gathas, 
which  are  its  most  important  part,  are  written 
in  a  different  dialect  from  the  rest  of  the  Avesta, 
and  are  very  probably  of  a  more  ancient  date. 

The  Yandidad  contains  the  legislation  of  the 
Avesta.  The  name  is  characteristic;  it  signifies 
given  against  the  demons. 

The  Yisparad  contains  a  collection  of  prayers 
very  similar  to  those  in  the  Yasna.  The  name 
means  all  heads,  or  chiefs ;  it  is  so  called  because 
the  chief  objects  of  the  good  creation  are  invoked 
in  iti 

The  Yashts.      This  name   is    connected  with 


■^' 


,o 


Rdigion  of  the  W<t^vU,rj^^^  11 

Yasna,  which  has  been  explained   above.     The  Prayers 

,  7  .       .  4    -T-r     -1        addressed  to 

term  yasht  -pTo-perlj  means  tcorshippuig.     A  Yasht  one  deity. 
is  properly  a  prayer  or  hymn  in  which  one  deity 
is  more  especially  singled  out  for  adoration. 

It  certainly  is  not  easy  to  see  any  logical  prin- 
ciple ruling  the  division  and  arrangement  of  the 
parts  of  the  Avesta. 

We  proceed,  however,  to  the  examination  of  the 
book  as  we  find  it.  We  shall  speak  successively 
of  the  following  subjects: — 

I.  The  Theological  system  of  the  Avesta. 
II.  The  Ritual. 
III.  The  Ethical  and  Judicial  systems. 

I.    The  Theology. 

"When  we  proceed  to  examine  the  theoloerv  of  conflicting 

^  ^"^  doctrine*  in 

the  book  we  are  at  once  struck  with  the  conflicting  the  theology 
character  of  its  doctrines.  We  discover  in  one 
place  either  Monotheism,  or  what  approaches  it; 
in  another  place,  decided  Dualism;  in  a  third, 
Polytheism.  We  cannot  divest  ourselves  of  the 
belief  that  such  jarring  creeds  imply  diversity  ol 
origin.  If  they  arose  in  the  same  country,  they 
must  have  done  so  at  different  epochs.  Yet  when 
we  strive  to  arrange  the  systems  in  the  chrono- 
logical order  of  their  sequence,  we  are  perplexed 
by  the  fact  that  no  division  of  the  Avesta  is  homo- 
geneous in  its  doctrine  ;    discordant  voices  often 


12 


The  Zend-Avesta,  and  the 


unexpectedly  break  in  upon  us.  The  most  that 
we  can  say  is  that  the  Gathas,  on  the  whole,  come 
nearest  to  Monotheistic  teaching;  the  Yandidad 
is  more  tinged  with  Dualism;  while  the  Yasna 
(except  the  Gathas)  and  the  Yisparad  are  more 
Polytheistic,  and  the  Yashts  are  the  most  decid- 
edly so  of  all.  Difficult  as  it  is  to  theorize  on  the 
chronological  relations  of  these  systems  of  thought, 
one  is  irresistibly  driven  to  do  so.  Professor 
Spiegel,  who  has  devoted  a  laborious  life  to  the 
study  of  the  Avesta,  holds  that  the  order  was  not 
first  polytheism,  then  dualism,  then  monotheism, 
but  that  the  monotheism  preceded  the  dualism. 
We  also  believe  that  a  kind  of  monotheism  came 
first.     But  this  point  requires  explanation. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  Ahura  Mazda, 
the  chief  divinity  in  the  Avesta,  was  originally  the 
same  as  the  Yaruna  Asura  of  the  Yeda.  (Ahura 
is  simply  the  Zend  form  of  Asura,  which  means 
Lord.)  Yaruna  is  etymological! y  the  same  as  the 
Greek  \vpav6s,  heaven ;  and  Yaruna  was  the 
heaven-god.  A  very  lofty  character  is  ascribed 
to  this  deity ;  if  the  Yeda  ever  approaches  the  con- 
ception of  holiness,  it  is  in  connection  with  Yaruna 
it  does  so.  The  counterparts  of  Yaruna,  the  heaven- 
god,  are  found  in  Zeus,  Ju-piter,  and  Ahura  Mazda; 
and  it  may  be  held  as  demonstrated  that  the  con- 
ception of  a  supreme  divinity,  wise,  powerful,  and 
good,  was  common  to  the  four  great  divisions  ol 


DuaJism. 


Polytheism. 


The  chrono- 
logical 
relations  of 
these 

systems  in 
the  Avesta. 


Ahixra 

MaLdaand 

Varuna 

originally 

the  same 

deity. 


Their 

counterparts 
are  Zeus 
and  Jupiter. 


The 

conception 
of  a  supreme 
divinity 
common  to 
the  great 
divisions  of 
the  Aryan 
race. 


Religion  of  the  Parsis. 


the  Aryan  race, — the  Greeks,  Romans,    Hindus, 

and  Iranians.     It  must   have  belonged  to   them 

before   they   separated  from   each   other.       Yet,   "^^ff^^ 

although  supreme,  this  divinity  was  not  sole ;  he  *°^®* 

was,  in  the  phrase  which  meets  us  so  frequently 

from  the  time  of  Homer  downwards,  "  the  father 

of  gods  and  men ; "  but  he  received  no  exclusive 

homage. 

After  the  other  branches  of  the  Aryan  family  Iranians 

and  HinduSi 

had  migrated  to  the  west,  the  Iranians  and  Hindus 
evidently  remained  for  some  time  together;  and 
hence,  many  elements  are  common  to  the  two 
systems  of  religious  thought.  But,  ere  long,  the 
Indo-Iranian  stream  divided  into  two  parts,  which 
were  never  to  re-unite.  Each  of  the  two  systems 
of  faith  now  received  its  own  special  development. 

In  India,  Yaruna  was  gradually  divested  of  his  Varunaiost 
serene  majesty.     Even  in  Yedic  times  Indra,  the  position  in 
tumultuous  god  of  the  lower  sky,  who  had  none 
of  his  lofty  attributes,  was  exalted  into  the  place  of 
Yai-una;  and  other  gods  were  gradually  multiplied. 
But  in  Iran  the  authority  of  Ahura  Mazda  (ie.,  the  JJ^ 
wise  Lord^)  became  more  fully  recognized  than  *^^^* 
before.     His  moral  attributes  also  were  never  ob-  cS^terof 
scured.     Still,  Ahura  Mazda  falls  very  far  below  *^^^*^'^ 
the  divinity  who  is  revealed  in  the  Jewish  Scrip- 
tures.    He  is  not  a  purely  spiritual  being.     He  is  f  j^tur^^ 

l^eing. 
^  Haug  does  not  admit  that  Mazda  means  wise.     He  rendert 
it  joint-creator^  or  creator  of  ail. 


14 


The  Zend-Avesta,  and  the 


The  e-dl 
prindple 
everlasting 
»8  tnily  as 
Ahura. 


Vanous 
representa- 
tions 

concerning 
Ahura. 


not  omnipresent,  nor  omnipotent.  H3  is  not  creator 
of  all  things ;  for  the  Evil  Principle,  residing  in 
primeval  darkness,  is  from  everlasting  as  truly 
as  Ahura  himself.  There  is  an  inconsistency  in 
the  statements  regarding  Ahura*s  relation  to  the 
Amesha-spentas  (literally,  holy  immortals) y  who 
are  a  kind  of  archangels.  They  are  said  to  be 
seven;  but  this  number  is  made  up  only  by  in- 
cluding Ahura  Mazda  as  one  of  them, — while  yet, 
in  many  passages,  he  is  said  to  have  created  them. 
Ahura  is  represented  as  praying  for  help  even  to 
such  inferior  divinities  as  Mithra,  An^hit,  Tistriya, 
and  Ysiyu,  who  preside  respectively  over  the  sun 
(see  infra),  the  waters,  the  star  Sirius,  and  the  wind. 
Again,  Ahura  is  repeatedly  called  "  the  greatest  of 
the  yazatas,** — a  name  generally  given  to  divini- 
ties of  the  second  class.  There  is  also  considerable 
confusion  in  the  statements  regarding  his  relation 
to  Spenta  Mainyu,  the  good  or  beneficent  spirit. 
Ahui-a  is  frequently  identified  with  the  latter ;  but 
in  many  places  a  kind  of  distinction  is  preserved. 
Dr.  Haug  represents  the  Gfathas — which  inculcate, 
as  he  maintains,  the  original  Zoroastrian  faith — as 
asserting  that  from  the  beginning  there  was  a  pair 
of  beings — twins — in  Ahura  Mazda ;  one  of  whom 
was  the  good  spirit,  and  the  other  the  evil  spirit.^ 

1  They  are  the  two  moving  causes  in  the  universe,  united  from 
the  beginning,  and  therefore  called  twina  They  are  present 
everywhere;  in  Ahura  Mazda  as  well  as  in  men. — H(mg'% 
Eways,  p.  303. 


Religion  of  the  Parsis.  15 

This  seems  to  involve  the  tremendous  consequence 
that  evil  is  an  essential  attribute  of  the  self-existent 
deity  —  a  tenet  with  which  we  are  reluctant  to 
charge  the  Avesta.  The  view  of  Haug — that  the 
two  opposed  spirits  are  in  Ahura  Mazda, — seems 
scarcely  borne  out  by  the  original  text ;  and  even 
if  it  were,  we  must  not  press  too  far  the  logical 
result  of  certain  phrases.  The  Avesta  in  truth  no  reasoned, 
contains  no  reasoned-out  system;  but  its  whole  mthe 
teaching  asserts  that  to  the  nature  of  God  evil  is 
abhorrent.  The  Avesta  has,  indeed,  a  very  imper- 
fect conception  of  what  sin  and  evil  are ;  but,  so 
far  as  its  knowledge  goes,  it  denounces  and  detests 
them. 

Closely  connected  with  Ahura  is  a  hierarchy  of  ^gg^^^- 
celestial  beings,  the  Amesha-spentas,^  mentioned  SSi" 
above.     They  are  very  generally  adored  along  with     ^^    ^' 
Ahura.     Thus:    '*We  sacrifice  to  Ahura  Mazda, 
bright  and  glorious ;  we  sacrifice  to  the  Amesha- 
spentas,  all-ruling,  all-beneficent."  ^     The  function 
of  these  "  holy  immortals "  is  to  inspect  and  aid 
the  whole  of  the  good  creation.     Their  designations  The 

designations 

are  as  lollows  : —  ofthehoiy 

immortals. 

1.  Vohumano  (literally,  good  mind).     The  name 

^  The  temi  Amesha-spentas  was  in  later  times  corrupted  into 
Amshaspands  ;  and  the  names  now  usually  assigned  them  are 
aa  follows  : — Bahman,  Ardibahisht,  Shahrlvar,  Spendermad, 
Khordad,  and  Amerdad.  None  of  these  names  has  any  re- 
semblance to  the  Hebrew  name  of  any  angel  or  archangel 
2  Hapten  Yasht  6. 


sovereignty. 


16  The  Zend-Avesta^  and  the 

Thegeniua     orisiiiallv  denotes  submission  to  the  revealed  law. 

of  truth.  °  '' 

He  became  the  genius  of  truth,  and  also  of  flocks. 
Truth  and         2.  Asha  vasistha  (the  best  rectitude)  denotes  oon- 

holiness.  ... 

f ormity  to  divine  order ;  truth  and  holiness.     He 
presides  over  fire.     He  also  cures  diseases. 

3.  Khshathra  vairya  {supreme  sovereignty).     He 
represents  royal  dominion.    He  presides  over  metals. 
Thegeniua         4.  Speuta  Armaiti  (holy  msdom).     She  became 

oftheaarth.  •  ,.    -,  i 

the  genius  of  the  earth. 
Health  and        5,  6,   Haurvatat   and  Ameretat   are   generally 

immortality.  ,  .  .        .  „ 

mentioned  together.     Their  names  signify  health 
and   immortality.      They  denote    the    fulness   of 
blessing. 
The  In  the  Gathas,  the  Amesha-spentas  seem   ab- 

sntaa  m  stract  idcas,  or  qualities,  rather  than  personal  beings. 
Their  names  sound  like  attributes  of  Ahura  Mazda ; 
and  many  passages  appear  to  require  them  to  be  so 
understood.  In  others  they  are  represented  as  his 
gifts  bestowed  on  faithful  worshippers.  If  not 
attributes,  their  relation  to  Ahura  Mazda  is  such 
that  we  are  almost  compelled  to  conclude  either  that 
they  were  simply  repetitions  of  him — seven  being 
a  kind  of  sacred  number  among  the  Aryans,  as 
weU  as  various  other  races, — or  that  there  were 
seven  original  separate  divinities,  of  whom  Ahura 
was  chief.  In  any  case,  the  distinction  between 
Ahura  and  the  Amesha-spentas  became  clearer  as 
time  went  on.  They  latterly  formed  a  kind  of 
celestial  council. 


le  (^<athAS. 


Religion  of  the  Farsis.  17 

Yazatas.     This  term  means  worthy  of  worship,  The 

.         Yazatas,  or 

and   IS  occasionally  used  m   that   comprenensive  "^^^' 
sense.     More  frequently,   however,   it   denotes   a  ^^^«^ 
very  large  class  of  beings  who  are  inferior  in  point 
of  dignity  to  the  Amesha-spentas.     Yery  many  of 
them  resemble  divinities  of  the  Yedas;  but  others 
have  no  counterparts  in  the  Indian  system. 

Of  the  first  kind  are  genii  presiding  over  natural 
objects,  especially  those  connected  with  the  four 
elements  —  fire  and  light,  air,  earth,  and  water. 
Yery  great  importance  is  attached  to  Fire  (Atar)  ;  P^^* 
so  much  so  that  the  Persians  havy  often  been  called  f^^^  *** 
par  excellence  fire-worshippers.     Atar  is  the  son  of  character- 
Ahura  Mazda ;  ^  he  is  the  beneficent,  the  warrior ;  (fire). 
he  is  a  full  source  of  glory,  a  full  source  of  healing. 
He  is  a  most  potent  opponent  of  the  evil  principle.^ 
He  is  most  quick  and  powerful  in  helping  those 
that  bring  him  dry  wood,  well  cleansed,  and  well 
examined  in  the  light  of  day.^    The  fire  is  never 
to  be  allowed  to  go  out.     Its  altar  must  be  kept 
pure;  it  is  a  heinous  sin  to  pollute  the  sacred 
element  in  any  way  whatever. 

Airyaman  is  also  a  genius  of  fire.     He  is  the  ^PJ^^' 
much-desired.      The  prayer  addressed   to   him  is 
called  the  mightiest  of  spells:   the  most  healing 
of  all  cures  for  disease.     Every  form  of  evil  flees 
before  it. 


emiuof 


Sirooah  i.  and  ii.  9.        ^  Farvaidin  Yasht  xxii.  77,  78. 
■  Atash  Nyayiflh  16. 

c 


18 


The  Zend-Avesta^  and  the 


Great 

importance 
also  attached 
to  Light. 

Mithra. 


Functions 
and  attri- 
butes of 
Mithra. 


Spread  of 
the  worship 
of  Mithra. 


rijtriya. 


Equal  importance  is  attached  to  the  genii  con- 
nected with  Light.  A  very  high  place  among 
these  is  assigned  to  Mithra.  He  is  originally  the 
god  of  the  luminous  heaven.  As  such  he  knows 
everything ;  having  a  thousand  ears  and  ten  thou- 
sand eyes.  He  is  strong,  sleepless,  ever  watching. 
He  is  the  lord  of  wide  pastures.  He  swings  in  his 
hands  a  cluh  with  a  hundred  knots,  the  strongest 
of  all  weapons.  With  arms  uplifted  he  drives  in 
a  heautiful  chariot  of  gold,  which  is  drawn  on  one 
wheel  hy  four  swift  horses,  living  on  heavenly  food, 
and  deathless,  whose  forefeet  are  shod  with  gold, 
and  their  hind  feet  with  silver.  He  is  the  strongest, 
the  most  valiant,  the  most  active,  the  most  fiend- 
smiting  of  all  gods.  He  precedes  the  undying, 
swift-horsed  sun  ;  which,  in  later  days,  came  to  be 
identified  with  him.  The  praises  heaped  upon 
Mithra  make  him  almost  equal  to  Ahura  Mazda, 
with  whom  he  is  especially  associated,  —  "May 
Mithra  and  Ahura,  the  high  gods,  come  to  our 
help  ! "  ^  It  was  towards  the  Christian  era  that 
the  worship  of  Mithra,  mixed  apparently  with  cruel 
rites  borrowed  from  Babylon,  spread  far  and  wide 
in  the  west. 

Another  exalted  being  is  Tistriya,  the  genius  of 
the  star  Sirius.  He  presides  over  the  first  month 
of  summer.  He  is  the  great  leader  of  the  fixed 
stars  in  their  contest  with  the  planets;   for,  sin- 


i  Mihir  Yasht  113. 


Religion  of  the  Parsis,  19 

gularly  enough,  these  two   classes  of  beings   are  a  leader  in 

the  strife 

opposed  to  each  other  in  the  ffreat  strife  between  between 
.....  .       8^^^  *"*^ 

good  and  evil.     Tistriya  is  the  chief  author  of  rain ;  evu. 

he  is  the  chief  opponent  of  Apaosha,  the  fiend  who 
causes  drought.  Tistriya,  in  the  shape  of  a  beau-  conflict  with 
tiful  white  horse  with  golden  ears  and  harness, 
meets  the  fiend  in  the  shape  of  a  black  horse, 
black  with  black  ears,  black  with  a  black  back, 
black  with  a  black  tail,  stamped  with  brands  caus- 
ing terror.  They  meet,  hoof  against  hoof,  and 
fight  for  three  days  and  three  nights.  Tistriya  is 
beaten  and  flees.  He  loudly  complains  that  men  nis  defeat. 
do  not  sacrifice  to  him  as  they  do  to  other  yazatas ; 
otherwise,  he  would  have  had  the  strength  of  ten 
horses,  ten  camels,  ten  bulls,  ten  mountains,  and 
ten  rivers.  Ahura  Mazda  comes  to  his  aid  by  ms  rescue. 
•ffering  him  a  sacrifice.  He  returns  and  van- 
quishes the  fiend ;  and  then  come  wind  and  cloud 
and  rain  and  sleet,  and  the  seven  continents  of  the 
world  are  soon  refreshed  by  **  the  friendly  showers, 
the  fertilizing  waters."^      Ahura  Mazda   says  of  Ahura 

.  .  Mazda's 

"the  bright  and  glorious  Tistriya,"  "  1  have  created  testimony 

*-''-'  •'     '  concerning 

him  as  worthy  of  sacrifice,  prayer,  propitiation,  and  ^^^ 
glorification  as  myself,  Ahura  Mazda/' 

Of  the  genii  of  the  waters  the  most  celebrated  is  oeniiof  th« 
Ardvi  sura  Anahit,  i.e.,  the  high,  powerful,  undefiled.  AnSMt 
She  descends  from  the  region  of  the  stars.     She  is 
*  Tir  Yaeht  20-33. 


20 


The  Zend-Avesta,  and  Pit 


What  she 
doee. 


Description 
of  her. 


wide-spreading,  health-giving,  herd-increasing,  fold- 
increasing.  She  guards  living  beings,  as  a  shepherd 
does  his  flock.  She  has  a  thousand  reservoirs  and 
a  thousand  channels,  each  as  large  as  a  man 
could  ride  across  in  forty  days,  mounted  on  a  good 
horse.  Ahura  Mazda  created  for  her  four  horses 
— wind,  rain,  cloud,  and  sleet — so  that  it  is  con- 
tinually blowing,  raining,  hailing,  or  snowing  on 
earth.  She  has  a  golden  necklace  on  her  beautiful 
neck,  and  golden  rings  in  her  ears.  The  description 
of  the  goddess  is  very  graphic ;  and  it  has  been 
suggested  that  it  must  have  been  drawn  from  the 
inspection  of  a  statue  raised  in  her  honour.  This 
is  possible,  as  Artaxerxes  Mnemon  erected  statues 
to  her,  and  is  said  to  have  introduced  her  worship 
among  the  Persians.^  She  seems  to  have  become 
identified  with  the  Babylonian  goddess  Mylitta, 
whose  attributes  were  ascribed  to  the  genius  of  the 
waters;  although  originally  the  latter  was  very  un- 
like in  character  to  the  immoral  "  queen  of  heaven." 


Tegetable 

world. 

Homa. 


fto-w  the 
ivesta 
ipeaksof  it. 


Of  the  productions  of  the  vegetable  world  the 
most  celebrated  was  Homa,  or  Haomo.  The 
Homa  is  a  plant  with  thick  stalks  and  yellow  flowers, 
growing  chiefly  on  the  mountains  of  Ghilan  in 
northern  Persia.  The  Avesta  speaks  of  it  in  the 
most  exalted  terms.     It  flourishes  in  resplendent 


}  It  exiflted,  however,  before  his  tiine,  for  Herodotus  mentioDa 


Religion  of  the  Par  sis.  21 

fflory  on  "  the  hiffliest  height "  of  the  heavenly  Effects  ot 

•  ......  Ti    Ml      its  juice. 

mountain  Hara  Berezaiti ;  *  its  jmce  cures  all  ills 
of  mind  and  body.  The  juice  is  extracted  by  pound- 
ing the  plant  with  a  pestle  in  a  mortar.  It  is  the 
enlivening,  the  beautiful,  the  lordly,  the  golden- 
eyed,2  the  victorious,*  and  the  giver  of  victory.  It 
is  the  most  precious  part  of  the  offering.  Later 
Parsiism — ^though  not  the  Avesta — speaks  of  two 
Homas, — a  terrestrial  one  which  is  yellow,  and  a 
celestial  one  which  is  pure  white. 

This  exaltation  of  Homa  in  the  Avesta  reminds 
us  of  the  position  assigned  in  the  Veda  to  Soma. 
(The  two  words  are  the  same,  with  the  usual 
dialectic  difference.)  Soma,  among  the  Hindus, 
became  a  stiU  mightier  deity  than  Homa,  being 
sometimes  called  the  creator  of  heaven  and  earth. 

The  spirits  of  the  air  are  not  of  much  importance.  Genii  of  tiu 
The  most  important  is  Y&yu — the  wind;  who  is 
said  to  belong  in  part  to  the  good,  and  in  part 
to  the  bad,  creation.  The  reason  of  this  distinc- 
tion is  obvious;  but  it  is  remarkable  that  the 
same  division  is  not  made  in  the  case  of  fire  and 
water. 

Of  the  spirits  of  the  earth  the  most  important  is  ^^h'  *^ 
Spenta  Armaiti,  who  is  also  one  of  the  Amesha 
spentas. 

1  Gosh  Yasht,  17. 
«  JukA  Yasht  37.  »  Bahram  Yasht  67. 


22 


The  Zend-Avesta,  and  the 


Diyiniiies 
not  known  to 
the  Hindus. 


tJraosna  the 
genius  of 
obedience. 


The  beings  hitherto  mentioned,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Anahit,  were  originally  common  to  the 
Indo-Iranian  race.  There  are  other  divinities  who 
are  of  purely  Iranian  origin,  and  unknown  in  India. 
The  most  important  of  these  are  the  following. 

Sraosha.  This  name  is  derived  from  a  verb  signi 
fying  to  hear.  Sraosha  is  the  genius  of  obedience  to 
the  law.  He  is  a  mighty -speared  and  lordly  divin- 
ity ;  tall  in  form,  fiend-smiting,  the  best  protector  of 
the  poor,  guarding  the  faithful  like  a  shepherd's 
dog.  Like  Mithra,  he  never  sleeps ;  he  watches 
all  the  world  with  club  uplifted,  from  the  hour 
when  the  sun  is  down ;  indeed,  since  "  the  two 
spirits  made  the  world  "  he  has  never  slept ;  night 
and  day  he  battles  with  the  demons.  His  strong 
arm  smites,  and  their  skulls  are  shattered  by  the 
blow. 

The  Law  (daena)  and  the  holy  formulae  or 
spells  are  also  worshipped  as  divine.  So  are  the 
sacred .  books,  especially  the  Gathas.  Sacrifice  is 
offered  to  them,  and  they  are  frequently  invoked 
for  aid. 

Ashi  Yanguhi  (good  piety)  is  highly  celebrated. 
She  is  beautiful ;  her  rays  are  far-piercing ;  she 
brings  all  earthly  blessings.  Splendid  garments, 
and  hoards  of  silver  and  gold  brought  from  distant 
lands  are  the  portion  of  her  votaries. 

A  very  remarkable  class  of  divinities  is  that  of  the 
Fravashis.     There  is  considerable  obscurity — ool 


The  holy 
formulee. 


The 

Frayashis— 
a  remark- 
able class  ol 
beings. 


Religion  of  the  Par  sis.  23 

to  say  contradiction — in  the  descriptions  of  them. 
Originally  they  probably  were  the  souls  of  the  what  they 
dead ;  but,  in  process  of  time,  all  living  beings —  gjf®<ie* 
animals,  as  well  as  men — sky,  waters,  earth,  fire, 
and  plants,  were  believed  to  have  each  a  fravashi. 
Beings  yet  unborn  possess  them.  Even  Ahura  Mazda 
has  a  fravashi.  The  fravashi  seems  sometimes  a 
kind  of  guardian  angel ;  sometimes  it  nearly  cor- 
responds with  the  archetypal  ideas  of  the  Platonic 
philosophy.  It  is  quite  possible  that  the  original 
conception  of  the  fravashi  was  modified  in  later 
times  by  Babylonian  ideas.  "  The  awful  fravashis 
of  the  faithful"  are  irresistible,  overpowering. 
Ahura  Mazda  confesses  that  they  bring  him 
assistance ;  indeed,  it  is  through  their  brightness  and 
glory  that  he  maintains  the  sky  and  the  life-giving 
waters ;  and  had  not  the  fravashis  of  the  faithful 
helped  him,  the  whole  material  world  would  have 
fallen  under  the  power  of  the  demons. 

Space  is  also  worshipped.^  So  is  Time,  There  space  and 
are  both  "  the  sovereign  time  of  the  long  period/* 
and  "  time  without  bounds."  Space  and  Time 
are  not  personified ;  they  have  no  genius  specially 
connected  with  them.  The  position  held  by 
**  boundless  Time "  has  led  to  some  controversy. 
A  text  wliich  means  "in  boundless  Time"^  had 
been  rendered  by  Anquetil  *'  bi/  boundless  Time  '* ; 
and  on  this  mainly  was  founded  the  beHef  that 
»  IiMger  Sirozah  30,  21.  «  Vand.  xix.  9. 


24  The  Zend-Avestay  and  the 

infimte  Time  was  the  supreme  diyinity  of  ibe 
Avesta.^  Undoubtedly  an  influential  sect  of 
Zoroastrians — the  Zarvanites — ^held  this  doctrine 
in  the  time  of  the  Sasanian  kings ;  and  indeed  it 
had  been  known  from  before  the  Christian  era. 
Still,  it  is  certainly  not  the  doctrine  of  the  Avesta 
proper ;  it  is  a  later  refinement  introduced  by  specu- 
lative minds. 
The  whole         It  soems  needless  to  so  into  srreater  detail.   Suffice 

of  the  good  °  ° 

S^Sppld  ^^  ^^  ^^y  ^^^*  there  is  nothing  in  the  whole  of  the 
good  creation  that  is  not  held  to  be  deserving  of 
worship.  Prayers  are  addressed  to  human  souls, 
the  souls  of  animals,  vegetables,  springs  of  water, 
rivers,  mountains,  the  earth,  the  wind,  the  sky, 
the  stars,  etc.,  etc.  In  the  case  of  those  objects 
that  have  a  presiding  divinity,  it  must  be  carefully 
noted  that  the  homage  is  rendered  both  to  the 
divinity  and  the  outward  object.  It  is  often  diffi- 
cult to  say  which  is  intended  ;  in  fact,  the  mind  of 
the  worshipper  oscillates  between  them,  and  fre- 
quently blends,  not  to  say  confounds,  the  two. 
But  so  it  was  in  Greece  and  Rome, — the  river  and 
the  river-god  were  the  same,  yet  different; — and  so  it 
is  among  the  Hindus.  The  question  as  to  the  real 
object  of  the  invocation  is  less  difficult  when  an 
abstract    conception — a   quality  or   a  feeling — is 

Worship  of  exalted  to  divinity.  In  such  cases  the  abstract 
idea  is  personalized  and  worshipped.  In  other 
^  So  Gibbon,  and  many  more. 


prayers. 


Religion  of  the  Furs  is.  25 

words,  the  being  who  presides  over,  or  inspires,  the 
feeling,  is  the  object  addressed  ;  there  are  not  two 
objects.  Even  so  the  Greeks  and  Romans  wor- 
shipped the  goddess  of  love,  the  goddess  of  wisdom, 
the  god  of  war,  and  so  on.  The  only  peculiarity 
lies  in  the  great  extent  to  which  the  Zoroastrian 
carries  the  personifications  and  deifications. 

We  may  quote  the  following  prayer,  offered  on  specimen  of 
the  last  day  of  each  month,  as  giving  a  good  idea 
of  the  remarkable  manner  in  which  different  objects 
of  worship  are  thrown  together  in  the  invocations. 

SOth  day.     (Dedicated  to)  Aneran  (».«.  Anaghra,  or  lignite 
Light.) 

We  sacrifice  to  the  eternal  and  sovereign  luminous  space.  We 
sacrifice  to  the  bright  Gardnmana  [heaven].  We  sacrifice  to  the 
sovereign  place  of  eternal  weal.  We  sacrifice  to  the  Chinvat 
bridge,  made  by  Mazda.  We  sacrifice  to  ApA,m  Napdt,  the 
swift-horsed,  the  high  and  shining  lord,  who  has  many  wives. 
We  sacrifice  to  the  water  made  by  Mazda  and  holy.  We  sacrifice 
to  the  golden  and  tall  Homa.  We  sacrifice  to  the  enlivening 
Homa,  who  makes  the  world  grow.  We  sacrifice  to  Homa,  who 
keeps  death  far  away.  We  sacrifice  to  the  pioixs  and  good 
Blessing.  We  sacrifice  to  the  awful,  powerful,  cursing  thought 
of  the  wise,  a  god.  We  sacrifice  to  all  the  holy  gods  of  the 
heavenly  world.  We  sacrifice  to  all  the  holy  gods  of  the 
material  world.  I  praise,  I  invoke,  I  meditate  on,  and  we 
Baorifice  to,  the  good,  strong,  beneficent  Fravashis  of  the  hoi; 


We  proceed  now  to  speak  of  evil  beings.     The  evU  beingi 
Avesta,  as  Professor  Darmesteter  rather  sarcasti- 
cally remarks,  is  "  very  rich  in  demons."     Daevas, 
drujas,  yatus,  pairikas,  dvarants,    dregvants,  and 


r>^ 


26  The  Zend-Avesta^  and  the 

80  on ;    we  have  them  of  varied  classes,  and  in 
numbers  without  number.^ 
The  chief  The  chief  of  these — and  the  creator  of  all  of  them 

evil  being,  ^  ^  ... 

m"^°u8  — ^^  Angro  mainyus  or  Ahriman.  His  name  m 
th^h^ui  Zend  means  hurtful  sjnrit.  He  is  from  all  eternity ; 
■pint.  j^g  -g  wholly  evil;    his  original  dwelling  was   in 

primeval,  uncreated  darkness,  which  existed  in 
boundless  space,  far  apart  from  the  primeval,  un- 
created light.  Angro  mainyus  was  at  first  ignorant 
of  the  productions,  and  apparently  of  the  existence, 
of  the  good  spirit ;  but  when  he  became  aware  of 
these,  he  "  broke  into  the  fair  creation,"  ^  determined 
to  counterwork,  and  if  possible  destroy,  it.     For 

1  The  dualism  of  the  Avesta  has  sometimes  been  called  the 
product  of  philosophic  thought.  But  the  Medo-Persian,  while 
strong  in  action,  was  in  speculation  weak.  And  dualism  exists 
among  some  very  simple  races ;  for  example,  the  Santals  of 
India.  These  hold  the  sun -god  to  be  good.  All  other  super- 
human beings  are  malevolent ;  and  every  calamity  comes  from 
the  demons.  Even  so,  the  Zoroastrian  ascribed  all  evil  to  the 
demons.  Demons  were  therefore  multiplied  ;  for  he  had  many 
evils  to  contend  with.  Unlike  the  Hindus  in  their  progress  down 
the  rich  Gangetic  valley,  he  had  to  maintain  a  perpetual  struggle 
for  existence.  Cold  blasts  from  the  Caspian  and  the  Elburz 
mountains  chilled  his  blood  and  killed  his  crops  ;  in  summer  he 
suffered  from  drought ;  and  he  was  perpetually  in  danger  from 
the  incursions  of  savage  nomades.  All  such  misfortunes  were, 
he  believed,  the  work  of  devils.  Then,  as  the  conception  of  the 
moral  character  of  Ahura  Mazda  was  developed,  the  conception 
of  his  adversary,  Ahriman,  was  developed  proportionally  ;  the 
brighter  light  caused  a  darker  shadow.  Dualism  thus  sprung 
from  no  profoiyjd  speculation.  A  higher  idea  of  Divine  power 
or  a  deeper  insight  into  the  moral  government  of  the  world  would 
hftve  checked  its  growth. 

'  Farvardin  Yasht  77. 


Religion  of  the  PavHis.  27 

every  pure  being  created  by  the  good  spirit,  Angro 

mainyus  created  a  corresponding   evil  being ;    iu 

place  of  health,  he  made  disease ;  ^  and  for  life, 

death.   The  good  spint  (we  have  seen)  is  surrounded 

by   six    immortal    holy    ones.      Angro    mainyus  HiaooundL 

created  six  arch-demons,  the  grisly  council  of  hell, 

whose  very  names  seem  mockeries  of  those  of  the 

pure   hierarchy   of  heaven.     The   entire   struggle  The  great 

between  srood  and  evil — light  and  darkness — lasts  between 

°    ^  "  ^  good  and 

for  twelve  thousand  years ;  and  we  are  now  in  the  ^JgiJ.^** 
thick  of  the  fight.  All  creation  is  divided,  and  ranged  f^^^ 
in  two  hostile  camps.  Angels,  men,  animals,  plants, 
and  inanimate  nature  are  so.  Even  the  heavenly 
bodies  are  divided :  the  fixed  stars  are  on  the  side 
of  the  right,  while  the  planets  are  with  the  evil  one. 
It  is  not  easy  (as  we  have  said  above)  to  see  why 
this  distinction  between  stars  and  planets  is  made; 
but,  for  the  sake  of  symmetry,  some  division  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  was  required.  The  side  assigned 
to  animals  is  often  no  less  surprising  ;  thus,  frogs, 
turtles,  cats,  and  even  ants  are  partizans  of  the 
demon.    But  the  world-wide  contest  is  not  to  endure  Not  to 

endure  foi 

for  ever.    Zoroaster  was  created  by  Ahura  Mazda  to  ever, 
oppose  the  great  enemy  and  all  his  auxiliary  hosts. 
Zoroaster  was   the  only  being   that   could  daunt 
Angro   mainyus.^     He  smote  the  fiend  with  the 

*  He  created  99,999  diseases.     A  favourite  uuinber  iu  the 
Aveeta. 

>  Aahi  Yasht  20. 


The  Zend-Avesta^  and  the 


holy  spells,  and  especially  with  the  one  called 
Ahuna  vairya  (or  Honover),  which  was  as  strong 
a  weapon  as  a  stone  of  the  size  of  a  house.  Still, 
however,  the  battle  raged.  Three  sons  of  Zoroaster 
will  yet  be  miraculously  bom,^  who  will  carry  on 
his  work,  in  which  the  last  of  them — Soshyant,  or 
Sosiosh — will  be  completely  victorious.  Angro 
Its  final        mainyus  will  be  overthrown;  he  will  be  cast  into 

issue. 

hell,  and  (as  is  generally  held)  destroyed.  Then 
comes  the  frasho-kereti,  the  perpetuation  of  life. 
The  fair  creation  that  had  been  slain  by  the  fiend 
revives ;  the  good  live  in  a  renovated  world ;  and 
everlasting  joy  prevails. 


The  battle 
field. 


The  Avesta  does  not  explain  how  the  good  spirit 
left  the  region  of  uncreated  light,  and  the  bad 
spirit  that  of  uncreated  darkness.  Both  of  these 
regions  are  finite  in  extent,  existing  in  infinite 
space ;  and  the  battle-field  lies  between  them. 


Heaven.  Garonm^na  is  often  mentioned  as  the  dwelling- 

place  of  Ahura  Mazda.  The  name  means  "the 
house  of  song."  Ahura  there  sits  on  a  throne  of 
gold,  surrounded  by  the  Amesha  spentas  and 
Yazatas.      Paradise  is   often    identified   with  it. 

HdL  Hell  is  full  of  darkness  and  horror.     It  is  situated 


1  We  might  explain  how  ;  but  our  readers  would  not  pardon 
us  if  we  did.  The  whole  representation  is  outrageously  extra 
vj^ant.  Yet  the  Avesta  stands  committed  to  the  worst  part  ai 
it.     See  Yasht  xiii.  62. 


Religion  of  the  Parsis.  29 

in  the  north,  under  the  earth  ;  its  mouth  is  beside 

the  mountain  Arezura.     In  heaven  the  good  are  The  food  of 

,  heaven  and 

fed  with  butter  made  in  spring  ;  in  hell  the  wicked  i^eu. 
eat  poison,  and  have  to  endure  a  poisonous  stench. 
It  would  seem  that  the  good  man  at  death  is  con- 
ducted to  Garonmana,  the  heaven  of  Ahura ;  hut 
that  (as  has  just  been  said)  the  earth  after  its 
renovation  becomes  his  dwelling-place. 


n.    Thb  Kitual. 

The  following  remarks  may  suffice  as  a  state- 
ment of  the  chief  ritual  observances  of  the  Parsis. 
We  shall  speak  in  succession  of  their  care  of  the 
sacred  fire,  their  prayers,  offerings,  and  purifica- 
tions. 

The  fire  is  kept  in  a  special  building  called  ^®'***^ 
Atash  Bahram ;  in  the  innermost,  and  most  sacred 
division  of  the  building.  This  is  separated  from 
the  rest  by  a  wall ;  but  the  door  remains  open. 
The  fire  is  kept  burning  day  and  night ;  it  would 
be  regarded  as  an  awful  calamity  if  it  were  to  be 
extinguished.  It  is  constantly  watched  by  two 
priests.  The  fire  is  on  a  stone  altar,  and  is  within 
an  urn,  which  is  occasionally  of  silver,  but  gene- 
rally of  bronze.  The  um  may  be  of  any  size; 
Anquetil  saw  one  which  was  three  feet  and  a  half 
in  height.  The  fire  is  large,  and  the  flames  rise  it  is  fed 
high.     It  is  fed  chiefly  with  sandal  wood.     No  woodcMeflj 


30  The  Zend-Avesta,  and  the 

moist  or  green  wood  can  be  used  The  priest  has 
a  pair  of  tongs  about  one  foot  and  a  half  in  length, 
with  which  he  supplies  large  pieces  of  wood  as  re- 
other  fuel,  quired.  Incense  of  gum  benzoin  is  also  burnt  along 
with  the  sandal  wood ;  and  for  this  a  large  spoon 
is  used.  There  is  a  room  in  the  building  for  storing 
sandal  wood,  quantities  of  which  are  brought  by 
worshippers ;  and  this  the  priests  cut  up  into 
suitable  pieces.  Everything  issuing  from  the 
mouth  defiles;  hence  the  lower  part  of  the  face 
of  the  priest  is  covered  with  a  veil  of  muslin,  to 
prevent  his  breath  reaching  the  sacred  element. 

Prayer,  how       Prayors   are  chaunted   memoriter  by  the  priest 

oif  ered  in  , 

pubUc.  (Mobed),  in  front  of  the  fire.     Every  portion  of  the 

day  has  its  allotted  prayer.  While  these  are  offered 
within  the  inner  apartment,  the  people  without  read 
or  repeat  prayers,  facing  the  fire.  These  are  in  Zend, 
in  the  Gujarati  character  ;  they  are  pronounced 
generally  without  being  understood.  Every  man 
prays  by  himself;  there  is  no  common  worship. 
Sometimes  the  worshipper  may  add  an  extempore 
supplication  of  his  own  in  the  vernacular.  Women 
occasionally  attend. 

While  praying,  the  priest  holds  in  his  left  hand 
the  harsorn  (beresma).  This  originally  was  a 
bundle  of  small  twigs,  generally  of  date  or  pome- 
granate, bound  tightly  together  with  a  small  twig. 
It  is  now  generally  composed  of  small  silver  rods. 


Religion  of  the  P arsis.  31 

The  priest  sits  with  his  legs  crossed,  when  repeating 
the  prayers,  holding  the  harsom  in  his  left  hand. 
Prayers  for  the  dead  are  recited  daily  in  the  Atesh 
Bahram.  Richer  people  generally  have  the  service 
performed  in  their  own  houses;  but  poor  people 
come  to  the  fire-temple.  The  Mohed  performs 
this  service  in  the  forenoon,  chaunting  a  particular 
kind  of  prayer  called  Afrigan.  It  is  especially 
during  the  recitation  of  these  prayers  that  the 
harsom  is  now  used. 

So  much  for  public    worship;    but  even  the  The 

domestic  fire 

domestic  fire  is  always  sacred,  and  must  be  treated  is  also 

''  ^  sacred. 

as  such.  It,  too,  must  never  be  extinguished.  In 
the  first  part  of  the  night,  in  the  second,  and  the 
third,  "Fire  calls  for  help  to  the  master  of  the 
house :  *  Up !  put  on  thy  girdle  over  thy  clothes, 
wash  thy  hands,  take  wood,  bring  it  to  me,  and 
let  me  burn  bright.'  "  ^  This  threefold  call  must 
be  obeyed.  Now-a-days  the  Parsis  usually  cover 
the  fire  with  ashes  at  night,  to  prevent  its  going 
out;  and  in  the  morning  the  first  food  it  gets  must 
be  sandal  wood.  The  mistress  of  the  house  attends 
to  this  duty.  A  handful  of  sandal  wood  is  put  on 
the  fire  by  each  member  of  the  family. 

We  may  next  speak  of  offerings.     When  asked  hfw'ST 
how  the  demon  could  be  repelled  by  him,  Zoro- 
aster said:  "The  sacred  mortar,  the  sacred  cup,  impieironti 
»  Vandidad  xviiL  18-22. 


32  The  Zend-Avesta,  and  the 

tlie  Homa,  and  the  \A'ords  taught  by  Mazda ;  these 
are  my  weapons,  my  best  weapons."  ^  All  these 
things  occupy  an  important  place  in  connexion 
with  offerings. 

The  sacred  The  mortar  (h^vana)  is  of  metal,  as  is  also  the 
pestle.  In  it  are  pounded  small  t-r^'g^o  of  the  Homa 
plant,  which  was  referred  to  above  (p.  20).  Water 
is  added  to  the  sap  which  is  expressed,  and  the 
mixture  when  filtered  is  collected  in  a  "sacred 
cup."  When  the  due  prayers  have  accompanied 
the  process  of  preparation,  this  liquid  becomes 
endowed  with  almost  divine  attributes. 

The  sacred         The  Soma  of  the  Hindus  was  fermented  and 

cup. 

intoxicating ;  and  no  doubt  it  was  ths  great  exhila- 
ration produced  by  the  beverage  that  led  a  simple- 
minded  people  to  ascribe  to  it  such  transcendant 
attributes  and  powers.  The  Avesta  supplies  no 
evidence  of  the  Iranians  confounding  intoxication 
with  a  divine  afflatus.^  So  far  well ;  only,  no  ex- 
planation then  remains  of  the  boundless  and  endless 
laudation  of  Homa.  The  Magi  seem  never  to  have 
asked  themselves  why  tasting  the  least  drop  of 
this  disagreeable  drink  should  destroy  a  thousand 
devils.^ 

The  great  Iranian  heroes  of  the  ancient  times 

*  Vandidad  xix.  9. 

^  Ahura  Mazda  is  described  as  "never  intoxicated"  (Vand. 
xix.  20).  To  Indra,  on  the  contrary,  the  Veda  says:  "Thy 
inebriety  is  intense." 

»  Yasna  x.  U  (De  Harlez,  p.  287). 


Religion  of  the  Parsis.  33 


offered    up    animal    sacrifices.     Thus    Thraetono  Animal 

A»i  k     1  '  -rr  1  '  '  r>  pt  sacrifice  was 

onered  up  to  Asm  Vanffum  a  sacrifice  of  a  nun-   offered  in 

■^  °  ancient 

dred  male  horses,  a  thousand  oxen,  and  ten  thou-  ^^^y^- 

sand   lambs. ^     The   practice    of    animal   sacrifice 

was   continued    to    a    late    period ;    for    Xerxes 

sacrificed  at  the  site  of  Troy,  "  a  thousand  oxen, 

while  the  Magi  poured  out  libations  in  honour  of 

the  ancient  heroes.''^     Animal  sacrifices  are   not 

unknown  in  the  Vandidad.     Thus,  for  a  certain 

very  grave  offence  the  guilty  person  must  "  slay  a 

thousand  head  of  small  cattle,  and  offer  the  entrails 

to  the  fire."*     In  other  cases  also  animal  offerings  Not  so  now 

were  required,  until  in  comparatively  recent  times ; 

but  all  such  observances  seem  now  to  have  entirely 

ceased. 

But  the  normal  offering  was   different.     It  was  The 
presented   by  Ahura  Mazda  himself  to  Anahita,  offering. 
*'  with  homa  and  flesh,  the  baresma,  the  wisdom 
of  the  tongue,  the  deeds,  the  libations,  and  the 
rightly  spoken  words."  *   (The  wisdom  of  the  tongue 
means,  no  doubt,  the  sacred  formulae.) 

In  the  present  day,  however,  the  flesh  (myazda) 
has  ceased  to  be  offered.  The  priest  takes  the  cup 
containing  the  Homa  in  his  right  hand,  raises  it 
in  his  right  hand  before  the  sacred  fire,  and  drinks 
a  small  quantity.     The  rest  is  poured  into  a  well. 

»  Aban  Yasht  33. 

*  Herodotus  vii.  43.      So   also   the  Magi   "propitiated   ihe 
river  Strymou  by  sacrificing  white  horses  to  it." — Herod,  vii.  113, 
»  Vand.  xviii.  70.  *  Aban  Yasht  17. 

D 


34 


The  Zend-Avesta,  and  the 


The  Homa  offering  is  made  in  private  houses  as 
well  as  in  fire- temples ;  and  the  ceremony  should  be 
performed  twice  a  day.  The  other  offerings  are 
chiefly  bread,  flowers,  fruits, — especially  dates  and 
pomegranates — leaves,  mainly  those  of  pomegranates, 
branches  of  homa,  and  less  frequently  fresh  milk. 

Offerings  are  still  made  to  the  sea,  consisting 
chiefly  of  flowers  and  fruits,  such  as  cocoa  nuts. 
On  one  remarkable  occasion  in  Bombay  there  was 
an  offering  of  thirty  (if  it  was  not  three  hundred) 
tubs  of  sugar  candy. 


Punficatdon 

from 

ceremonial 

defilement 

is  of 

supreme 

importance. 


Means  of 
purification. 


Ceremonial  purity  is  with  the  Parsi  a  matter  of 
supreme  importance.  Defilement  is  easily  incurred, 
and  hence  the  means  of  purification  are  earnestly 
prescribed  in  the  Avesta.  The  glory  of  the  Zoro- 
astrian  law  is  said  to  consist  in  its  so  fully  and 
clearly  declaring  the  ceremonies  needful  for  cleans- 
ing the  defiled. 

The  distinction  between  ceremonial  and  moral 
defilement  is  far  from  clear  in  the  Avesta.  The 
one  is  regarded  as  equally  dreadful  with  the  other, 
and  as  requiring  equal  expiation.  Nay,  the  Avesta 
would  regard  the  crime  of  murder  as  less  heinous 
than  that  of  a  single  man  carrying  a  dead  body  to 
the  sepulchre. 

The  great  material  agents  of  purification  are 
water  and  gomez,  or  nirang  (urina  bovis).  But  the 
efficacy  of  these  agents  depends  on  their  right  pre- 


Religion  of  the  Parsis  36 

paration  and  application.  Should  the  requisite 
ceremonies  and  prayers  have  been  neglected,  the 
potency  of  the  means  is  gone;  and  then,  as 
Anquetil  puts  it,  there  is  "no  purification,  no 
purifier,  no  priest,  and  no  Parsi!  " 

Everything  that  issues  from  the  human  body  is 
regarded  as  dead,  and  as  belonging  to  the  demons. 
Even  the  hair  and  nails  when  cut  off  are  the  same ;  Disposal  of 

.       .  .  ,      .       hair  and 

and  elaborate  prescriptions  are  given  as  to  their  naiis. 
disposal.  If  these  rites  are  neglected,  and  the  hair 
and  nails  allowed  to  fall  about  as  they  may,  the 
power  of  the  demons  is  increased  as  much  as  if  a 
sacrifice  were  offered  them.  Holes  must  therefore 
be  dug,  far  away  from  fire,  water,  and  the  barsom, 
and  the  nails  and  haii  must  be  deposited'separately 
in  these;  three,  six,  or  nine  furrows  must  be  drawn 
around  the  holes  with  a  knife,  and  certain  prayers 
must  be  offered.  When  all  this  is  rightly  per- 
formed, a  certain  bird  eats  up  the  nails  (it  does  not 
seem  that  the  bird  does  the  same  to  the  hair) ; 
otherwise  they  would  have  become  so  many  spears, 
knives,  bows,  arrows,  and  sling-stones  in  the  hands 
of  the  demons.  It  is  right  to  mention,  however, 
that  these  ceremonies  are  often  neglected  by  modern 
Parsis,  at  least  in  India. 

The  great  source  of  defilement  is  contact  with  a  SoS^Sact 
dead  body.^     In  death  is  the  cliief  triumph  of  the  body. 

*  "  It  grieves  the  sun,  0  holy  Zoroaster,  to  shine  upon  a  man 
defiled  by  the  dead  ;  it  grieveti  the  muuu  ;  it  grieves  the  stars." 


The  Zend-Avesta,  and  the 


demon.  Hence  the  dread  of  death,  which  is  suffi- 
ciently marked  among  the  Hindus,  becomes  still 
more  intense  among  the  Parsis.  The  moment  the 
breath  is  out,  the  fiend  (Hruj)  Nasu  rushes  upon 
it  from  the  regions  of  the  north,  in  the  shape  of  a 
raging  fly.  The  body  is  now  utterly  unclean,  and 
pollutes  every  one  near  it.  But  the  demon  can  be 
expelled  by  bringing  in  "  a  dog  with  four  eyes  " — 
a  white  dog,  according  to  modem  usage, — and  the 
Druj,  as  soon  as  the  dog  looks  at  the  body,  flies 
back  to  hell.  ^ 
Hoy,  in  From  the   livine:  who  have  been  polluted  by 

such  cases,  *=*  r  J 

contact  with  the  dead,  the  Druj  is  expelled  by  the 
application  of  consecrated  water  and  nirang, — in 
some  cases  by  using  only  one  of  these.  By  a  most 
complex  form  of  ceremonies  the  demon  is  driven  from 
post  to  post — all  down  from  the  top  of  the  head  to 
the  point  of  the  toes;  and  when  the  prescribed 
prayers  accompany  all  this,  the  triumph  is  complete, 
and  the  baffled  fiend  flies  back  to  the  regions  of 
the  north  "in  the  shape  of  a  raging  fly,  with  knees 
and  tail  sticking  out,  all  stained  with  stains,  and 


the  demon 
is  expelled, 


(Vand.  ix.  41).  Or  as  Professor  De  Harlez  renders  it :  "It  is 
with  regret  the  sun  shines  on  the  impure  ;  it  is  in  spite  of  them- 
selves that  the  moon  and  stars  give  him  light." 

1  Vandidad  xviL  9,  10.  Darmesteter  holds  the  text  to  be 
genuine  which  declares  the  corpse  to  be  in  the  power  of  the  drvj 
(demon)  until  the  dog  has  seen  it  or  "eaten  it  up,  or  until 
flesh- eating  birds  have  flown  to  it "  (Vand.  viL  3).  We  have 
the  same  thing  distinctly  mentioned  of  the  dog  in  Vand.  viii.  3b 


Religion  of  the  Par  sis.  37 

like  in  appearance  to  the  foulest  monsters."^  About 
thirty  parts  of  the  body  are  mentioned,  from  which 
the  demon  has  to  be  successively  expelled ;  it  is  a 
terribly  long  battle,  but  it  ends  in  certain  victory. 

The    2:reatest    of    all   the   purifications   is    the  The  chief 

*^  _        ^  ^  ^  purification 

Barashnum,  a  ceremony  which  lasts  for  nine  nights,  ^^i^nu,^ 
(The  signification  of  the  name  is  not  fully  ascer- 
tained.) Originally  the  rite  was  used  only  as  a  means 
of  removing  the  defilement  arising  from  contact 
with  a  corpse  of  a  dog  or  a  man.  But  it  has  long 
been  used  to  cleanse  away  defilement  in  other 
cases.  Nine  holes  have  to  be  dug  in  a  space 
cleared  from  trees ;  a  furrow  has  to  be  drawn  round 
each  with  a  metal  knife,  and  other  furrows  up  to 
the  number  of  twelve ;  three  holes  hold  water,  six 
hold  nirang ;  prayers  are  recited  ;  the  unclean  per- 
son is  sprinkled  with  nirang  from  a  spoon  of  brass 
or  lead ;  the  hands  are  then  washed  first,  otherwise 
everything  goes  wrong ;  then  the  various  parts  of 
the  body  are  sprinkled,  as  mentioned  in  last  para- 
graph, until  finally  the  demon,  whose  power  has 
been  becoming  weaker  at  each  sprinkling,  is  com- 
pletely beaten  off  and  driven  away  to  hell. 

The  new-born  child  must  be  washed  with  water, — 
not  generally  now  with  nirang  ;  before  this,  it  is  im- 
pure.    Before  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  generally  be-  initiation 
tween  nine  and  eleven,  initiation  into  the  Zoroastrian  astrianisiB 

how  per* 

faith  takes  place  by  means  of  prayers,  purifications,  'ormed. 

*  Vaudidad  viii.  71- 


88  The  Zend-Avesta,  and  the 

and  tlie  putting  on  of  the  kusti  ^  (a  string  made  oi 
seventy- two  woollen  threads  twisted  together),  and 
the  sadarah  or  sacred  shirt,  which  is  of  muslin  with 
short  sleeves.  If  after  the  age  of  fifteen  any  one 
walks  four  steps  without  these  accoutrements, 
the  demons  wither  him  up,  and  he  himself  becomes 
a  hobgoblin.  All  of  this  applies  equally  to  men 
and  women.  Except  during  ablutions,  the  kusti 
and  sadarah  must  be  worn  day  and  night. 

A  spiritual  teacher  should  be  provided  for  the 
young  Parsi. 

Morning  Every  morning  fresh  nirang  is  brought  to  the 

house.  The  hands  are  dipped  into  it ;  then  a  small 
quantity  is  applied  to  the  face,  hands,  and  feet.  But 
in  greater  purifications  the  Kquid  is  drunk;  three 
sips  are  taken.  Then  (probably  to  banish  the  taste) 
pomegranate  leaves  are  chewed, — -'though  this  seems 
no  part  of  the  prescribed  ritual. 

Treatment         When  any  one  dies,  men  first  wash  the  body, 

of  the  dead  ...  . 

dress  it  in  white  garments,  and  lay  it  on  a  stone 
slab  in  the  front  room.  The  priest  comes  and  reads 
prayers.  The  women  are  in  the  same  room  with 
the  body,  the  men  outside.  During  the  last  prayer 
a  white  dog,  kept  usually  in  the  fire-temple,  is 
brought  near  the  corpse,  and  induced,  if  possible, 
to  look  at  it.  Two,  now  generally  four,  men  lay 
the  body  on  an  iron  bier.     The  dog  is  commonly 

'  The  threads  of  the  kmti  can  be  spvin  only  by  the  wives  of 
the  Mubeds. 


Religion  of  the  P arsis.  39 


brought  in  twice ;  and  the  whole  ceremony  may  The  funeral 

•  miTTi'i  rv    procession. 

occupy  forty  mmutes.  Then  the  hody  is  borne  on 
by  the  four  men — a  fifth  man  preceding  to  clear 
the  way,  so  that  not  even  the  shadow  of  an  un- 
believer may  fall  on  the  corpse.  The  Mobeds 
walk  two  and  two,  generally  holding  a  hand- 
kerchief between  them.    Ceremonies  are  performed  The  scene 

.  ^  of  thfc 

close  to  the  cfukhma — or  '*  tower  of  silence,"  as  ceremonies, 
it  is  usually  called  in  English.  This  is  a  circular 
pit,  very  deep,  round  which  is  a  stone  pavement 
about  seven  feet  wide.  On  this  the  corpses  are  ex- 
posed naked.  The  ^  face  of  the  dead  is  uncovered ; 
the  birds  of  prey  come  in  multitudes,  and  very  soon 
the  flesh  is  all  devoured.  Every  morning  the  bones 
are  swept  down  into  the  great  receptacle — the  pit. 

Every  day  of  the  month  is  consecrated  to  some  uoiy  Uj*. 
divinity.  Besides  this,  the  1st,  8th,  15th,  and 
23rd  days  of  the  month  are  sacred  to  Ahura  Mazda; 
from  the  3rd  to  the  8th  to  the  Amesha  spentas. 
The  six  Gahambars  are  in  commemoration  of  the 
six  periods  of  creation. ^  The  last  is  the  most  im- 
portant. It  lasts  ten  days — from  10th  to  20th 
March — which  is  the  end  of  the  year.  It  is  espe- 
cially marked  by  ceremonies  in  commemoration  of 

*  There  is  something  touching  in  the  expression  used  regarding 
the  dead  man  :  "  Lay  him  down,  clothed  with  the  light  of 
heaven,  and  beholding  the  sun." — Vand.  vi.  41, 

'  See  Haug'a  Essays,  p.  192. 


40 


The  Zend-Avesta,  and  the 


(Jommemora- 
tion  and 
services  for 
the  dead. 


I'astivals. 


the  dead.  During  these  ten  days  the  souls  of  the 
dead  are  believed  to  quit  their  dwellings  in  the  other 
world,  and  revisit  their  relatives  on  earth. 

Besides  this,  there  are  special  services  for  the 
dead,  performed  on  the  day  of  the  month  on  which 
they  died. 

The  New  Year  is  a  great  festival. 

There  is  a  festival  in  honour  of  Mithra  at  the 
autumnal  equinox. 

Every  new  moon  and  full  moon  are  festivals. 


The  three 
great 
prayers, 
viz. : — 


The  Ahuna 
Tairya. 


Prayers  have  already  been  frequently  mentioned 
as  connected  with  various  rites.  But  there  are 
prayers  for  every  division  of  the  day.  There  are 
three  different  gahs  between  morning  and  evening, 
of  different  lengths ;  and  two  gahs  from  evening 
to  morning,  each  six  hours  long.  Different  prayers 
are  appointed  for  each  gah. 

There  are  three  great  prayers,  the  potency  of 
which  is  extolled  continually  and  in  the  strongest 
possible  language.  These  are  the  Ahuna  vairya, 
the  Ashem  Yohu,  and  the  Yenhe  Hatam. 

The  Ahuna  vairya  is  so  called  from  the  three 
initial  words  Yatha  ahu  vairyo.  It  existed  before 
heaven,  earth,  water,  or  fire ;  and  it  is  the  most 
effective  weapon  that  Ahura  Mazda  himself  can  use 
to  crush  the  demons.  It  is  much  to  be  regretted 
that  of  this  very  important  part  of  the  Avesta,  we 
Lave  at  least  six  conflictinsj  versions  from  scholars 


Religion  of  the  J^kl^^^>^  41 

of  high.  name.  In  the  midst  of  this  perplexity, 
the  ordinary  Parsi  will  console  himself  with  the 
reflection  that  the  efficacy  of  the  prayer  depends 
entirely  on  the  right  sounds  being  uttered,  and  not 
at  all  on  the  sense  attached  to  them.  But  we  can- 
not be  certain  even  of  the  sounds ;  for  the  com- 
mentary on  the  prayer  given  in  the  19th  chapter 
(Ha)  of  the  Yasna  must  be  founded  on  readings 
considerably  different  from  those  which  the  present 
MSS.  contain.  The  translation  of  Haug  is  the  Hang's 
following :  **  As  a  heavenly  lord  is  to  be  chosen,  s# 
is  an  earthly  master  (spiritual  guide)  for  the  sake 
of  righteousness ,  to  be  the  giver  of  the  good  thoughts, 
the  good  actions  of  life  towards  Mazda;  and  the 
dominion  is  for  the  lord  (ahura)  whom  he  has  given 
as  a  protector  to  the  poor**  With  all  possible 
respect  to  the  learned  man  who  supplies  this  version 
it  is  surely  impossible  that  this  can  be  the  mean- 
ing of  the  most  potent,  '*  most  fiend-smiting " 
prayer    in    the    Avesta.       Professor    de    Harlez  DeHariez»i 

.  paraphrase 

paraphrases  it  thus :  "  As  there  exists  a  supreme 
master,  perfect,  so  there  is  a  master  of  the  law  estab- 
lishedto  maintain  and  propagate  holiness;  the  regu- 
lator of  good  thoughts  and  of  actions  springing  out 
of  the  order  of  things  referring  to  Mazda.  Sovereign 
power  belongs  to  Ahtira ;  he  has  constituted  him 
(viz.,  the  master  of  the  law)  protector  {shepherd)  of 
the  poor."  Professor  Darmesteter  renders  the  prayer  Darmes- 
as  follows  :  "  The  will  of  the  Lord  is  the  law  of  holi-  reading. 


42 


The  Zend-Avesta,  and  the 


ness.  The  riches  of  Yohnmano  shall  he  given  to 
him  who  works  in  the  world  for  Mazda,  and  wields 
according  to  the  will  of  Ahura  the  power  he  gave  him 
to  relieve  the  poor.^^  The  sense  of  the  last  render- 
ing is  clear ;  but  it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  the 
Professor  extracts  it  from  the  present  text.  Finally, 
let  it  be  remembered  that  holiness  or  righteousness, 
as  used  in  this  passage  and  elsewhere  in  the  Avesta, 
merely  means  ceremonial  purity.^ 

The  Ashem  Yohu  prayer,  which,  if  not  quite  so 
potent,  is  used  still  more  frequently  than  the 
Ahuna  vairya,  is  translated  by  Haug  as  follows : 
"  Righteousness  is  the  best  good ;  a  blessing  it  is  ;  a 
blessing  be  to  that  which  is  righteousness  towards 
perfect  righteousness."  Darmesteter  makes  it — 
"  Holiness  is  the  best  of  all  good.  Well  is  it  for  that 
holiness  which  is  the  perfection  of  holiness.*' 

We  leave  our  readers  to  judge  for  themselves 
of  the  value  of  these  much -lauded  invocations, — if 
invocations  they  be.  We  need  not  add  the  third 
great  "  prayer  " — the  Yenh^  Hat&m. 


The  Ashem 

Vohu 

prayer. 


vanous  Tho  tcrms  of  homage  and  invocation  used  in  the 

terms  of  '  r\  v  l^  i  i    • 

homage  and  prayors  are  various.  One  irequently  employed  is 
yazamaide,  which  Darmesteter  renders  literally, 
we  sacrifice  to.    It  also,  however,  means  we  worship, 


*  So  even  Haug  admits.  *  *  It  means  what  is  right  or  meritorious 
in  a  ritualistic  or  materialistic  sense,  and  does  not  necessarily 
imply  holiness." — Essays,  p.  141. 


Religion  of  the  P arsis.  43 

IM  pray  to}  Other  terms  signify  to  invoice^  to 
praise,  to  glorify,  to  celebrate.  These  words  seem 
to  be  used  indiscriminately ;  at  least,  no  distinction 
can  he  perceived  between  the  homage  rendered  to 
higher  and  to  lower  beings  ;  assuredly  there  is  no 
such  difference  implied  as  is  drawn  by  certain 
tlioologians  between  dulia  and  latria. 

But  finally  on  this  head.  The  prevailing  R»jerisa 
conception  of  prayer  in  the  Avesta  is  that  of  incantation 
a  s})ell  or  incantation.  Sometimes,  we  hear  of 
formulae  that  are  on  no  account  to  be  communi- 
cated except  to  the  nearest  relatives.  When  we 
see  how  prayer  is  thus  transformed  into  a  species 
of  conjuration,  we  cannot  be  surprised  that  the 
practice  of  magic,  as  the  very  name  implies,  has 
been  so  often  traced  back  to  the  Magi,  the  followers 
of  Zoroaster. 

It  is  remarkable  that  prayer  itself  is  prayed  to 
in  the  Avesta.  The  Ahuna  vairya  is  especially 
thus  honoured.^ 

Fasting  occupies  so  important   a  place  in  most  no 
systems  of  religion  that  its  entire  absence  from  the  allowed, 
list  of  prescribed  duties  in  the  Avesta  attracts  the 
more  attention.     There  is  no  trace  of  asceticism 
in  the  Avesta  precepts  or  the  Parsi  practice.     The 
reader  will  at  once  see  how  much  is  involved  in 

^  De  Harlez  renders  it,  not  so  exactly — toe  honour 
2  Hormazd  Yasht  22,  etc. 


44 


The  Zend-Aveda,  and  the 


Zoroastrian 
ideas  of 
eating, 
drinking, 
and  health. 


this  characteristic.  Milton  speaks  of  "  spare  Fast, 
that  oft  with  gods  doth  diet " ;  but  to  the  Zoro- 
astrian such  language  appears  entirely  ridiculous.' 
He  holds  that  by  good  eating  and  drinking  he 
keeps  his  body  in  health,  and  so  fits  himself  to 
carry  on  a  more  vigorous  warfare  against  the 
demon  and  all  his  works.  Certainly,  the  typical 
Parsi  is  at  the  opposite  pole  of  thought  from  the 
pale  recluse,  worn  to  a  skeleton  by  abstinence  and 
vigils  ;  and  when  the  bodily  mortification  is  carried 
to  still  greater  lengths,  the  Zoroastrian  can  only 
trace  the  self-denial  to  the  influence  of  the  demons. 
In  like  manner,  celibacy  and  monasticism  can 
never  in  any  way  be  approved  by  Zoroastrians. 


Self-denial 
traced  to  the 
influence  of 
demons. 


Division  of 

human 

duty. 


III.     The  Ethical  and  Judicial  Systems. 

It  has  been  mentioned  above  that  Ahura  Mazda 
has  no  immoral  attributes  ascribed  to  him.  As  no- 
thing evil  can  form  a  part  of  his  worship,  so  nothing 
evil  should  be  practised  by  his  worshippers. 

The  Avesta  frequently  mentions  a  tiireefold 
division  of  human  duty,  viz..  Good  Thought,  Good 
Word,  and  Good  Deed. 

It  dwells  earnestly  on  the  importance  of  Truth- 
fulness. Mithra,  the  divinity  of  Light,  is  especially 
the  guardian  of  Truth ;  and  '*  to  He  to  Mithra,"  or 

^  He  who  fills  himself  with  food  is  filled  with  the  good  spirit 
muoh  more  than  he  who  does  not  so. — Yand.  iv.  48. 


Religion  of  the  Parsis.  45 

perjure  oneself,  is  a  very  grievous  sin.     Promises  Duties  and 
and  contracts  must  be  faithfully  observed. 

Kindness  and  charity  to  followers  of  the  true 
faith  are  inculcated. 

Theft,  robbery,  personal  assault,  and  murder  are 
all  strongly  reprobated. 

Marriage  is  much  encouraged.  It  is  implied  JJSeOto 
that  monogamy  was  the  general  rule.  Yet  one  °^»™««®- 
extraordinary  practice  is  recognized  in  the  later 
books  of  the  Avesta — marriage  with  the  nearest 
of  kin.  The  Parsis  have  naturally  been  slow 
to  admit  that  brother  was  allowed  to  marry 
with  sister,  and  even  mother  with  son ;  but  the 
testimony  of  ancient  authors  leaves  little  or  no 
doubt    as    to    the    existence    of    such    unnatural 


connexions. 


The  practice  of  prostitution,  adultery,  sodomy,  Son^S'*"*' 
and  such  crimes  is  strongly  denounced.  S^mm. 

1  See  Yasna  xiii.  28.  The  rendering  of  this  verse  by  Prof. 
De  Harlez  agrees  with  that  of  M.  Hovelacque.  It  is  as  follows: 
"  I  praise  marriage  between  relatives,  pure,  which  is  the  greatest 
among  marriages  present  or  to  come,"  etc.  etc.  Unless  we  are 
to  discard  the  testimony  of  a  multitude  of  Greek  and  Eoman 
writers,  marriages  which  we  should  call  incestuous  were  pretty 
frequent  among  the  Persians,  It  is  for  this  reason  the  poet 
Catullus  (Carmen  xc.  4)  exclaims  against  "  the  impious  reUgion 
of  the  Persians"  (Persarum  impia  religio).  See  the  question 
carefully  examined  by  Dr.  West,  Pahlavi  Texts,  Part  II. 
Appendix  p.  389,  etc.  Between  the  6th  and  9th  centuries  after 
Christ,  marriages  between  the  nearest  of  kin  were  earnestly 
recommended  by  the  priests.  Modem  Parsis  highly  approve 
of  the  marriage  of  cousins  german  ;  but  they  discourage  the 
union  of  those  more  nearly  allied  in  blood. 


46 


The  Zend-Avesta,  and  the 


Agriculture 
en  ouraged. 


The  observance  of  magical  rites  is  in  a  few  casea 
mentioned  and  reprobated. 

The  Avesta  dwells  with  all  possible  earnestness 
on  the  importance  of  agriculture.  Its  ideas  on 
this  subject  are  embodied  in  quaint,  and  some- 
times coarse,  phraseology ;  but  it  is  interesting 
to  note  the  anxiety  of  the  authors  of  the  Avesta 
that  the  people  should  cease  to  be  nomadic  and 
take  to  a  settled  life.  "  Whoso  cultivates  barley 
cultivates  righteousness."  ^ 

The  putting  to  death  of  the  creatures  of  the  evil 
principle  was  a  high  religious  duty.  If  the  division 
of  animals  into  good  and  bad  had  been  less  arbi- 
trary, this  might  have  called  forth  a  half-approving 
smile ;  the  slaughter  of  tigers,  serpents,  and  other 
noxious  creatures  being  surely  a  good  thing.  But 
when  we  hear  of  tortoises,  frogs,  cats,  ants,  etc., 
being  proscribed,  we  are  somewhat  startled.  "With 
all  the  efforts  of  the  Avesta  to  be  exact,  there  seems 
to  be  no  division  of  fishes,  and  no  clear  division  of 
birds,  into  good  and  bad.  Every  creature  being 
either  of  divine  or  demoniac  origin,  this  omission 


EvU 

animals 
must  be 
killed. 


^  Vand.  iii.  25,  31.  Dr.  Haug  reminds  us  that  there  are 
metrical  lines  and  rhymes  on  this  subject  introduced  into 
the  usually  very  prosaic  Vandidad.  The  chief  metrical  passage 
Buy  be  rendered  thus  : — 

When  the  barley  appears,  the  demons  pine; 
When  the  barley  is  threshed,  the  demons  whine ; 
When  the  barley  is  ground,  the  demons  fly ; 
When  the  meal  is  piepared,  the  demons  disb 


Religion  of  the  Parsis.  47 

is — on    the    principles    of    the    Avesta  itself — a 
grievous  fault. 

The  place  assigned  to  the  dog  is  very  notable.  f^^f.^(,Q 
One  entire  division  of  the  Avesta  is  devoted  to  the  "'  *^^  *^°^- 
celebration  of  his  excellence.  The  shepherd's  dog 
and  the  house  dog  are  highly  lauded  ;  but  the  dog 
of  dogs  is  the  water  dog,  whoever  he  may  be.^ 
The  murder  of  such  a  dog  is  inconceivably  heinous. 
**  Sweetness  and  fatness  will  never  return  to  the 
place  where  it  has  been  committed,  until  the  mur- 
derer has  been  smitten  to  death,  and  the  holy  soul 
of  the  dog  has  been  offered  a  sacrifice  for  three 
days  and  three  nights,  with  fire  blazing,  with  the 
baresma  tied,  and  the  homa  uplifted."  ^  And  the 
reason  of  all  this  is  that  out  of  every  thousand 
common  he- dogs  and  every  thousand  she-dogs  two 
water-dogs  are  formed,  one  male  and  one  female. 
We  need  not  wonder,  then,  that  the  correct  methods 
of  feeding  and  breeding  dogs  are  prescribed  with 
all  possible  solemnity  in  the  Avesta. 

Physical  and  ceremonial  defilements  are  put  on  Physical 

•'  '■  and  cere- 

a  level  with  moral  offences.     Contact  with  a  dead  Sements 
body — especially  that  of  a  man  or  dog — must  with 
all  possible  care  be  avoided.      To  bury,  or  bum,  a 
corpse  is  an  unpardonable  crime.     So  is  it  for  one 
man  to  carry  a  dead  body. 

The    punishments    for  offences  are  of  various 

*  The  otter  (?)     Possibly  the  beaver. 
«  Vand.  xiii.   172,  167. 


48  The  Zend-Avestay  and  the 

_____^___— —i— — ^ — ' — - — ■ —  ■  — "i^ 

kinds;  stripes,  fines,  imprisonment,  and  death. 
They  are  often  capriciously  disproportionate  to 
the  offence.  We  hear  of  five  stripes  with  a  horse- 
whip, and  of  as  many  as  two  hundred.  Man- 
slaughter is-  visited  with  ninety  stripes ;  but  the 
man  who  gives  bad  food  to  a  dog  receives  two 
hundred, 
intiicate  There  is   much  intricate  leeislation  about  the 

legislation  '-' 

iomen  unclcanness  of  woman  in  child-birth  and  at  other 
times  ;  but  on  this  we  will  not  dweU. 

A  woman  in  child-birth  suffering  from  fever  and 
thirst  is  not  absolutely  debarred  from  water ; — but 
the  penalty  of  drinking  it  is  two  hundred  stripes ; 
the  reason  being  that  she  is  unclean  and  pollutes 
the  holy  element.  For  killing  a  water-dog  the 
penalty  is  ten  thousand  stripes. 

Our  readers  will  ask  with  some  curiosity,  Was 

Partial         such  lesislatiou  ever  practically  carried  out?     Cer- 

execution  t         -r*        •  i  •        i 

ill^Sin,,  tainly  not  in  the  earlier  Persian  kingdom;  and 
probably  not  in  all  its  fulness  even  under  the 
Sasanian  monarchs.  The  Vandidad  supplies  us 
with  the  priestly  ideal  of  right  and  wrong — an 
ideal  which  we  cannot  conceive  to  have  ever  been 
completely  realized. 

Conclusion. 

It  is  now  time  to  give  a  brief  statement  of  the 
impression  left  on  the  mind  by  the  review  we  have 
taken  of  the  general  teaching  of  the  Avesta. 


legislation. 


Meligion  of  the  Parsis.  49 

There  are  several  characteristics  which  entitle 
the  Zoroastrian  faith  to  a  high  place  among  Gentile 
systems  of  religion. 

1.  It  ascribes  no  immoral  attributes  to  the  obiect  Merits  of 

...  Zoroas- 

of  worship.  Ahura  Mazda,  the  supreme  divinity,  triamsm. 
stands  ethically  much  higher  than  the  popular 
gods  of  Pagan  nations  generally.  The  Avesta,  as 
we  have  seen,  retains  much  of  n ature- worship ;  but 
evil  quail Lifj)  are  never  ascribed  either  to  the 
physical  object  or  the  being  who  presides  over  it. 

2.  The  Avesta  sanctions  no  immoral  acts  as  a 
part  of  worship. 

3.  None  of  the  prescribed  forms  of  worship  is 
marked  by  cruelty. 

4.  In  the  great  contest  between  light  and  dark- 
ness, the  Avesta  exhorts  the  true  worshipper  not 
to  remain  passive,  but  to  contend  with  all  his 
might  against  the  productions  of  the  Evil  Prin- 
ciple. 

5.  One  remarkable  characteristic  of  the  system 
is  the  absence  of  image- worship.^ 

6.  The  Avesta  never  despairs  of  the  future  of 
humanity ;  it  affirms  the  final  victory  of  good  over 
evil 

Difference 

In  regard  to  all  these  points  there  is  a  striking  zoS^ 
difference  between  Zoroastrianism  and  Hinduism.  m^SuSm!^^ 

^  Ab  has  been  mentioned  above,  image -wcirship  was  not  wholly 
unknown  in  ancient  Persia.  Contact  with  Hindus  led  some  of 
the  Parsis  in  India  into  idolatry  ;  but  all  the  educated  agreed  in 
oondenming  it. 

E 


50 


The  Zend-Avesta^  and  ike 


Other  merits 
of  Zoro- 
astrianism. 


It  is  not  easy  to  explain  how  tlie  former  system 
struggled  successfully  against  that  fatal  gravitation 
downwards  which  made  primitive  Hinduism  sink 
deeper  and  deeper  in  the  mire;  but  the  fact,  at 
all  events,  is  undeniable. 

Assuredly,  we  have  no  wish  to  undervalue  the 
importance  of  the  great  characteristics  of  Zoro- 
astrianism  that  have  now  been  mentioned  ;  and  wo 
might  point  to  yet  other  merits,  such  as  (7)  its 
encouragement  of  agriculture,  (8)  its  inculcation 
of  truth  in  thought,  word,  and  deed,  (9)  the  position 
of  respect  it  assigns  to  women,  and  (10)  the  kind- 
ness towards,  at  least,  Zoroastrians  which  it  incul- 
cates. Still,  it  must  be  confessed  that  the  creed 
of  the  Avesta  is  greatly  wanting  in  many  essential 
respects.  It  is  by  no  means  such  a  faith  as  en- 
lightened reason  can  accept  or  defend. 

1.  We  have  seen  that  th-  ^t. vesta  contains  a 
mixture  of  various  systems  of  thought, — a  quasi 
monotheism,  dualism,  and  nature- worship.  It  has 
often  been  mentioned  as  a  characteristic  of  the 
Bible  that,  although  its  composition  extended  over 
more  than  a  thousand  years,  there  is  a  strict  unity 
of  monotheistic  belief  running  through  it  from 
Genesis  to  the  Apocalypse.  Such  a  harmony  per- 
vades no  one  portion  of  the  Avesta ;  each  great 
division  contains  conflicting  elements. 

But  (2)  even  in  its  highest  representations  of 
divinity  the  book  is  deplorably  defective.    A  glance 


Its 

deficiencies 
and  errors. 
It  contains 
conflicting 
systems  of 
thougiit. 


Its  theism 

very 

defective. 


Religion  of  the  P arsis.  51 

at  what  has  been  said  on  page  13  will  clearly  show 
this.  Or  take  the  formal  enumeration  of  the  divine 
attributes  contained  in  the  following  passage  : — 

HOBMAZD    YaSHT. 

Ver.  5.  Zarathustra  said,  Reveal  to  me  that  name  of  thine,   Eniimeratlfn 
0  Ahura  Mazda,  which  is  the  greatest,  the  best,  the  fairest,  the    attributes, 
most  effective,  the  most   fiend-smiting,  the  best-healing,  that 
destroys  best  the  malice  of  devas  and  men  ; 

6.  That  I  may  afiBict  all  devas  and  men  ;  that  I  may  afflict 
all  Yatus  and  Pairikas  ;  that  neither  devas  nor  men  may  be 
able  to  afflict  me,  neither  Yatus  nor  Pairikas. 

7.  Ahnra  Mazda  answered  him,  "My  name  is  the  one  of 
whom  questions  are  asked,  0  holy  Zarathustra  ! 

My  second  name  is  the  giver  of  herds. 

My  third  name  is  the  strong  one. 

My  fourth  name  is  perfect  holiness. 

My  fifth  name  is,  All  good  things  created  by  Mazda,  the 

offspring  of  the  holy  principle. 
My  sixth  name  is  understanding. 
My  seventh  name  is  the  one  with  understanding. 
My  eighth  name  is  knowledge. 
My  ninth  name  is  the  one  with  knowledge. 
My  tenth  name  is  weal. 
My  eleventh  name  is  he  who  produces  weal. 
My  twelfth  name  is  Ahura  (the  Lord). 
My  thirteenth  name  is  the  most  beneficent. 
My  fourteenth  name  is  he  in  whom  there  is  no  harm. 
My  fifteenth  name  is  the  unconquerable. 
My  sixteenth  name  is  he  who  makes  the  trae  account. 
My  seven  teenth  name  is  the  all-seeing. 
My  eight* -en th  name  is  the  healer. 
My  ninroeenth  name  is  the  Creator. 
My  twentieth  name  is  Mazda  (the  knowing  one). 

9.  Worship  me,  0  Zarathustra,  by  day  and  by  night  with 
offerings  of  libations  well  accepted.  I  will  come  to  thee  for  help 
and  joy  ;  I,  Ahura  Mazda.  The  good  holy  Sraosha  will  come 
V>  tbee  for  help  and  joy.  The  waters,  the  plants,  and  the 
fravashis  of  the  holy  ones  will  come  to  thee  for  help  and  joy. 


52 


The  Zend-Avesta,  and  iihe 


Contrast 
with 
Biblical 
oonceptions. 


Zoroaa- 
trianism 
inferior  to 
Sufiism. 


No  worship 
of  God 
prescribed. 


Ideas  of 
offerings  to 
the  gods. 


How  little,  after  all,  do  these  twenty  names  convey 
to  satisfy  the  needs  and  cravings  of  the  human 
soul !  No  idea  is  hinted  of  the  fatherhood  of 
God.  How  sublime  and  melting  is  that  one  utter- 
ance of  the  Bible,  "  God  is  Love,"  in  comparison 
with  all  this  laboured  and  labouring  description 
of  Ahura  Mazda! 

With  respect  to  the  idea  of  communion  with 
God,  not  only  does  Zoroastrianism  fall  immeasur- 
ably below  Christianity, — it  is  decidedly  inferior 
even  to  Sufiism,  which  is  a  later  production  of 
the  Persian  mind  itself. 

3.  With  regard  to  the  worship  of  God.  There 
doubtless  were  deep  meanings  connected  with  the 
rite  of  animal  sacrifice,  as  practised  by  the  ancient 
heroes;  but  the  Avesta  does  not  prescribe  it, 
and,  in  overlooking  animal  sacrifice,  it  certainly 
parted  with  truths  both  venerable  and  precious. 
Prayer  in  the  Avesta  becomes,  as  we  have 
seen,  very  much  a  magical  formula ;  the  sounds 
of  which  are  all-important,  not  the  sense.  No 
common  worship  is  prescribed, — the  worshipper 
prays  for  himself,  or  is  prayed  for  by  the  priest. 
That  blending  of  hearts  and  interests  which 
is  implied  in  the  sublime  invocation  —  Our 
Father,  which  art  in  heaven — is  not  known  to  the 
Avesta. 

4.  The  idea  which  the  Avesta  has  of  the  offerings 
presented  to  the  divinities  is  as  low  as  that  of 


Religion  of  the  Parsis,  63 

the  Yedas.     The  divinities  generally  need  food; 
they  are  all  strengthened  hy  praise. 

5,  Our  readers  will  remember  that  Ahura  Mazda 
neither  receives  nor  asks  any  peculiar  homage. 
He  is  honoured  as  almost  every  object  in  the  good 
creation  is  honoured.  Although  the  Avesta  never, 
or  scarcely  ever,  deviates  into  the  pantheism  which 
confounds  the  Creator  with  the  creation,  yet,  in  so  Degrading 
lar  as  worship  is  concerned,  it  is  chargeable  with  God 
degrading  the  Creator  to  an  equality  with  his  own 
productions. 

In  this  respect  there  is  the  strongest  possible 
contrast  between  the  Avesta  and  the  Bible.     The  oontraat 

between  th« 

latter  is  strongly,  even  vehemently,  monotheistic ;  4rBU)iT'* 
it  condemns  in  the  sternest  language  everything 
which  in  any  degree  trenches  on  the  high  intrans- 
ferable  claims  of  Jehovah.  "  The  Lord,  whose 
name  is  jealous,  is  a  jealous  God."  "  Thou  shalt 
worship  the  Lord  thy  God,  and  Him  only  shalt 
thou  serve."  In  place  of  worshipping  the  works 
of  God,  the  Bible,  by  a  bold  personification  and 
apostrophe,  demands  that  they  shall  worship  God. 
"  Praise  Him,  sun  and  moon ;  praise  Him,  all  ye 
stars  of  light !  "  Instead  of  being  adored,  fire  is 
itself  commanded  to  adore  (Psalm  cxlviii.  3-10). 
It  was  not  that  the  seers  and  poets  of  Israel  had 
no  eye  to  discern  the  glory  of  Nature ;  they  saw  it 
more  clearly  than  Mede  or  Persian  did,  and  they 
celebrated  it  in  still  loftier  strains ;  but  they  knew 


54 


The  Zend-Avestay  and  the 


Defective 
idea  of  Sin. 


that  the  glory  had  no  subsistence  apart  from  Him 
who  gave  it  birth,  and  Him  they  could  not  too 
exclusively  or  ardently  adore. 

6.  The  notion  of  Sin  in  the  Avesta  is  exceedingly 
imperfect.  Evil,  as  dwelling  in  the  heart,  is  very 
seldom  mentioned ;  external  pollution  is  nearly  all 
in  all.  Hence,  such  a  piercing  cry  as  that  of  the 
Psalmist :  "  Pardon  mine  iniquity,  for  it  is  great," 
is  never  heard.  Equally  unknown  is  the  feeling, 
akin  to  rapture,  which  is  expressed  in  the  words 
of  the  prophet  Micah  :  "  Who  is  a  God  like  unto 
Thee,  that  pardo-neth  iniquity  ?  "  We  see  no  sad 
introspection,  no  wrestlings  of  the  spirit  with  in 
ward  corruption,  no  "  bitter  thoughts  of  cpnscience 
bom,"  no  cry  of  self-despair  like  this  :  "  Who  can 
understand  his  errors?  Cleanse  Thou  me  from 
secret  faults." 

7.  Coincident  with  this  very  imperfect  sense  of 
human  sinfulness  is  the  entire  absence  of  any  deep 
idea  of  expiation.  The  great  problem  of  expiation, 
which  receives  so  sublime  a  solution  in  the  Cross, 
has  occupied  and  distressed  not  a  few  who  nevei 
had  the  light  of  Judaism  or  Christianity ;  but  it 
seems  hardly  to  have  suggested  itself  to  the  writers 
of  the  Avesta.  For  ordinary  faults  they  prescribe 
washings,  purifications,  or  penalties;  and  some 
extraordinary  crimes  are  pronounced  unpardonable. 

8.  The  idea  of  Salvation  does  not  appear  in  the 
Avesta.     No  contrast  can  be  more  complete  than 


idea  of 
expiation. 


Ko  idea  of 
Salvation  in 
the  Avesta. 


Religion  of  the  Parsis.  55 

that  which  exists  hetween  its  mode  of  treating  sin 
and  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  Atonement".  Not 
a  few  writers  who  do  not  accept  the  fact  of  the 
atonement  made  hy  Jesus  Christ  have  yet  been 
awed   by  the  sublimity   of    the   conception — the  The 

•'  "^  -"■  sublimity  of 

conception  of  the  Son  of  God  becoming  the  Son  of  ^^fj^g^'jo^^'^ 
Man,  and,  by  His  obedience  unto  death,  bringing  ^^^^"^ 
sinful  man  to  God ;  and  nothing,  surely,  could  set 
in  a  clearer  light  the  essential  evil  of  sin,  and  also 
both  the  divine  righteousness  and  mercy.  Even 
unbelievers  have  repeatedly  confessed  that  the 
doctrine  of  the  atonement  has  a  strange  power  of 
stirring  the  deeper  and  better  emotions  of  the 
human  heart. 

9.  Again,  there  is  not  only  the  guilt  of  sin ;  there  Defective 
are  the  dreadful  consequences  of  pollution,  degra-  spiritual 

,  ^       purification. 

dation,  and  death,  entailed  on  the  soul  which  is 
surrendered  to  its  power.  How  shall  the  dead 
spirit  live,  and,  as  on  eagle's  wings,  soar  upward 
to  a  holy  heaven  ?  Alas !  the  Avesta  knows  not 
of  the  need  of  our  "  escaping  the  corruption  that  is 
in  the  world  through  lust , "  nor  of  our  becoming 
"partakers  of  the  divine  nature"  by  the  direct 
action  of  the  Spirit  of  God  in  regenerating  and 
purifying  the  heart  of  fallen  man. 

10.  We  have  seen  that  the  Zoroastrian  idea  of 
moral  purity  was  never  able  to  disengage  itself  from  Moral  and 

_  ceremonial 

that  of  ceremonial  purity.     The  Avesta  is,  in  this  p^'i^y 

*  ''  confounded. 

respect,  considerably   behind  some  of  the  Hindu 


56  The  Zend-Avesta,  and  the 

writings,  as  well  as  immeasurably  below  the 
Jewish  and  Christian  Scriptures.  The  explanation 
Explanation,  seems  to  be  this*  A  sacerdotal  caste  will,  if  un- 
checked, go  on  multiplying  ceremonies  and  the 
externals  of  religion,  until  the  mind  becomes  wholly 
absorbed  in  what  is  merely  ritual.  So,  doubtless, 
it  would  have  been  in  ancient  Judea,  had  not  the 
prophetical  office  been  established.  The  prophet, 
clothed  with  Divine  authority,  exclaimed :  "  Bring 
no  more  vain  oblations."  "  I  will  have  mercy,  and 
not  sacrifice."  Words  of  burning  indignation  and 
holy  scorn  recalled  the  people  to  the  observance 
of  the  weightier  matters  of  the  law.  But  in  ancient 
Persia  the  laity  seem  to  have  left  religion  entirely 
to  the  dictation  of  the  priests.  From  the  reign  of 
Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  the  Magi  slowly 
regained  their  power,  until  it  was  crushed  by  the 
invasion  of  Alexander;  and  under  the  revived 
empire — the  Sasanian — their  authority  appears  to 
have  been  almost  uncontrolled  from  the  very 
outset. 
fonS'tiSJ  11.  The  Avesta  has  no  conception  of  that  deep 
divine  principle  in  the  divine  administration, — "Whom 

^ovemment  ^-j^^  Lord  loveth  He  chasteneth."  Utterly  incom- 
prehensible also  to  the  Zoroastrian  would  have 
been  the  solemn  warning  which  the  prophet  Amos 
addresses  to  the  people  in  the  name  of  God :  "  You 
only  have  I  known  of  all  the  families  of  the  earth  ; 
• .,;  therefore  will  I  punish  you  for  your  iniquities." 


Religion  of  the  Parsis.  67 

When  calamity  came  on  the  people  of  Ahura  Mazda, 
they  believed  it  must  be  from  the  demon  or  his 
servants. 

The  A  vesta   thus    knows  nothing   of  the  dis-  TheAvest* 

°  knows 

cipline  of  sorrow — a  principle  not  wholly  unknown  J^e  d£L**' 
to  various  ancient  nations — which,  through  the  for?ow' 
influence  of  the  Bible,  pervades  nearly  all  modern 
thought.  "  Sweet  are  the  uses  of  adversity  : "  the 
principle  embodied  in  these  well-known  words  is 
recognized  by  nearly  all  who  are  not  avowed 
pessimists.  Most  educated  Parsis  will,  I  think, 
accept  it ;  but  certainly  they  have  not  derived  this 
important  truth  from  the  Avesta. 

12.  The  great   ideas   of   self-denial   and    self-  Noseif- 

'n        n     t  1  '11  denial. 

sacrifice  find  no  place  in  the  Avesta. 

13.  Many  of  the  rites  prescribed  in  the  Avesta  Many  rites 

T       1         1  •!  T  1  CA  PI  ^^®  childi54{ 

are  exceedingly  childish.     Some  oi  them  are  even  some  are 

^  ''  disgusting. 

disgusting — such  as  the  use  of  uiina  bovis, — and  I 
have  therefore  been  compelled  to  pass  them  hur- 
riedly over. 

14.  Intellectually,  the  Avesta  is  but  a  shallow  inteiiect- 
book.     Many  deep  questions,  connected  with  the  ^^Jj^** 
divine  government  of  the  world,  which  necessarily 
occur  to  every  reflecting  man, — such  as  those  with 
which  the  patriarch  Job  wrestled  to  agony — seem 
never  to  have  occupied  the  Zoroastrian  mind. 

15.  There  is  a  large  amount  of  verse, — or  else,  at 
least,  of  rhythmical  prose — in  the  Avesta.  It  may 
be  that  the  knowledge  which  now  exists  of  the 


of 


of^ 


Gbxist. 


no  The  Zend-Avesta,  and  the 

Yet  this  tract  would  be  incomplete  if  we  did 
not  glance  for  a  moment  at  the  immense  supe- 
riority of  the  New  Testament  over  the  Avesta, 
^racter  ^^  having  the  character  of  Christ  depicted  in  it. 
Example,  it  is  said,  is  better  than  precept.  Are 
then  the  marvellous  truths  and  precepts,  which 
flowed  like  beams  of  light  from  the  lips  of  Jesus, 
exemplified  in  His  own  life  ?  Thus,  we  know  that 
one  of  the  new  commands  He  issued,  was  "  love 
your  enemies ;  "  but  did  He  Himself  act  up  to  that 
grand  ideal  ?  Hear  Him,  as  His  enemies  nail  Him 
to  the  cross,  exclaiming — "  Father  !  forgive  them ; 
they  know  not  what  they  do  ;  "  and  your  answer 
to  the  question  must  come  in  tears  rather  than  in 
words.  If  those  highest  of  high  moral  attainments, 
self-denial  and  self-sacrifice  for  the  good  of  others, 
are  ever  to  be  learned,  where  can  we  better  learn 
them  than  at  the  cross  of  Christ  ?  To  say  that  the 
character  of  Jesus  is  faultless  is  saying  little  ;  it  is 

Its  gloriously  complete, — it  is  possessed  of  every  con- 

perfection.         •     11  11  .    .  11- 

ceivable  excellence, — it  is  "  orbed  into  a  perfect 

star."    Even  those  who  do  not  believe  in  Christ  as 

the  Son  of  God  must  admit  that,  if  the  Divinity 

were  to  become  incarnate,  the  result  would  be  such 

a  career  and   character  as   actually    belonged  to 

Jesus  Christ.    The  poet  reminds  us  that  there  are 

Truths  which  wake, 
To  perish  never. 

Such  are  the  truths  that  Jesus  uttered ;  and  even 


What  it 

teaches. 


Religion  of  the  Farais.  61 

so,  there  is  one  example  which  has  become  an  im- 
perishable part  of  the  highest  heritage  of  humanity, 
and  which  must  shine  on,  like  the  brightness  of  the 
firmament,  yea,  with  continually  increasing  glory, 
for  ever  and  for  ever — the  examiple  supplied  by 
the  life  and  death  of  Christ. 

Now,   the  immense    disparity  between    Christ  ^®^j^ 
and  Zoroaster  is   dawning,   we  believe,  on   that  chS^d 
interesting   people,  the  Parsis   of    India.      They  SZnTon 
have  been  clinging  to  their  ancient  faith  from  a     *  "^' 
feeling  of  nationality  rather  than  of  religion,  from 
tradition  more  than  from  conviction  ;  but  immense 
changes  are  certainly  at  hand.     Of  these  we  cannot 
now  speak.     But  we  believe  that,  as  the  **  Magi 
from  the  east  *' — who  probably  were  Zoroastrians 
— hastened  to   lay  their  gold,  frankincense,  and 
myrrh,  at  the  feet  of  the  new-bom  Redeemer,  so, 
ere  long,  the  Parsis  will  in  all  probability  be  the 
first  of  eastern  races,  to  take  upon  them,  as  a  race, 
the  easy  yoke  of  Christ. 


EXFLANATORT  AKD  SUPPLKMEKTABT  N0TX8. 

a.  The  Avesta  is  composed  in  a  language  usuaUy  called  Zend, 
which  is  cognate  with  Sanskrit.  The  translations  from  tbi 
Avesta  in  this  Tract  are  generally  those  of  Darmesteter,  as  given 
in  his  version  of  the  Yandidad  and  Yashts,  forming  two  volumes 
of  the  Sacred  Books  of  the  East.  In  other  cases  Haiig  or  De 
Harlez  has  been  followed. 

b.  The  Veda  is  the  most  ancient  of  the  aacred  bookit  of  tbt 
Hindus. 


62      Ttie  Zend-Avesta,  and  the  Religion  of  the  Parsis. 

c.  IrS,n  is  the  general  Oriental  designation  of  Persia.  The 
term  Iranians  includes  the  Bactrians  and  Medea  as  well  as  the 
ancient  Persians. 

d.  Ahura  Mazda  is  generally  written  Hormazd  by  the  Parsis. 
The  usual  names  of  the  two  principles,  as  given  in  the  classical 
writers,  are  Oromasdes  and  Arimanes. 

e.  In  Persia  the  adherents  of  the  Avesta  are  now  reduced  to  a 
very  small  number.  In  October,  1879,  they  were  only  8499. 
A  few  of  these  were  in  Teheran,  Kashan,  Shiraz,  and  Bushire  ; 
and  in  these  towns  they  were  treated  fairly  well.  But  the 
great  body  of  Zoroastrians  resides  in  Yezd  and  Kirman.  They 
are  greatly  oppressed  by  the  Mohammedans.  They  are  not 
allowed  to  travel,  and  are  forbidden  to  ride  even  on  aAftiie.  The 
form  and  colour  of  their  dress  are  strictly  prescribed. — Zeit- 
Bchrift  der  Bevischen  Morgenlandischen  Oesellschaft,  vol.  xxxvi., 
p.  54 

/.  In  India,  according  to  the  census  of  1881,  the  number  of 
Zoroastrians  was  85,397.  The  far  greater  part  of  these  are  in 
Western  India — chiefly  on  the  island  of  Bombay. 

g.  Some  Parsis,  engaged  in  commerce,  reside  temporarily  in 
China  At  least,  an  equal  number  may  be  found  in  England. 
Some  of  these  are  merchants ;  others  are  students — of  law, 
medicine,  or  engineeting. 


THE   HINDU    RELIGION 

A    SKETCH    AND    A    CONTRAST 

BY 

J.  MURRAY   MITCHELL,  M.A.,  LL.D. 


Argument  of  the  Trai:;t. 

The  place  of  Hinduism — which  is  professed  by  about  a 
hundred  and  ninety  millions  in  India — among  the  religions  of 
the  world,  and  its  great  antiquity  are  pointed  out. 

The  comparative  simplicity  of  the  system  contained  in  the 
Vedas,  the  oldest  sacred  books  of  the  Hindus,  its  almost  entire 
freedom  from  the  use  of  images,  its  gradual  deterioration  in 
the  later  hymns,  its  gradual  multiplication  of  gods,  the  advance 
of  sacerdotalism,  and  the  increasing  complexity  of  its  religious 
rites  are  set  forth. 

The  philosophical  speculation  that  was  carried  on,  the 
different  philosophical  Schools,  the  .Buddhist  reaction,  its 
conflict  with  Brahmanism,  its  final  d'^'feat,  and  its  influence 
on  the  victorious  system  are  discussed- 

The  religious  reconstruction  represented  by  the  Puranas, 
their  theological  character,  the  modern  ritual,  the  introduction 
and  rise  of  caste,  and  the  treatment  of  women  are  then  con- 
sidered. 

A  contrast  is  drawn  between  the  leading  characteristics  of 
Hinduism  and  those  of  Christianity,  and  the  effect  of  Christian 
ideas  on  modern  Hinduism  is  exhibited.  The  history  of  the 
Brahmo  Somaj  under  Keshub  Chunder  Sen  is  given  at  some 
length. 


THE  HINDU  RELIGION. 


Introduction. 

[Bi™iBw™jj;g  system  of  reliaious  belief  which  is  Hinduism 
Wm  M^  generally  called  Hinduism  is,  on  many  «*"<^y- 
K3  ^^\  ^cco^^^Sj  eminently  deserving  of  study. 
If  we  desire  to  trace  the  history  of  the 
ancient  religions  of  the  widely-extended  Aryan, 
or  Indo-European  race,  to  which  we  ourselves 
belong,  we  shall  find  in  the  earlier  writings  of  the 
Hindus  an  exhibition  of  it  decidedly  more  archaic 
even  than  that  which  is  presented  in  the  Homeric 
poems.  Then,  the  growth — the  historical  develop- 
ment— of  Hinduism  is  not  less  worthy  of  attention 
than  its  earlier  phases.    It  has  endured  for  upwards  its .    . 

*■  ^        ^  antiqmty. 

of  three  thousand  years, — no  doubt  undergoing 
very  important  changes,  yet  in  many  things  re- 
taining its  original  spirit.  The  progress  of  the 
system  has  not  been  lawless  ;  and  it  is  exceedingly 
instructive  to  note  the  development,  and,  if  possible, 
explain  it. 
We  are,  then,  to  endeavour  to  study  Hinduism 


The  Hind/ii  Religion, 


chronologically.  Unless  he  does  so,  almost  every 
man  who  tries  to  comprehend  it  is,  at  first,  over- 
whelmed with  a  feeling  of  utter  confusion  and 
bewilderment.  Hinduism  spreads  out  tefoi"©  him 
as  a  vast  river,  or  even  what  seems  at  first 

a  dark 
"  Illimitable  ocean,  without  bound, 
Without  dimension,  where  length,  breadth,  and  height, 
And  time,  and  place  are  lost." 


The 

discussion 
chrono- 
logical. 


The 

Christian's 
duty  in 
relation  to 
Kie  subject. 


But  matters  begin  to  clear  up  when  he  begins  at 
the  beginning,  and  notes  how  one  thing  succeeded 
another.  It  may  not  be  possible  as  yet  to  trace 
all  the  windings  of  the  stream,  or  to  show  at 
what  precise  points  in  its  long  course  it  was  joined 
by  such  and  such  a  tributary ;  yet  much  is  known 
regarding  the  mighty  river  which  every  intelligent 
man  will  find  it  profitable  to  note  and  understand. 
The  Christian  ought  not  to  rest  satisfied  with  the 
vague  general  idea  that  Hinduism  is  a  form  of 
heathenism  with  which  he  has  nothing  to  do,  save 
to  help  in  destroying  it.  Let  him  try  to  realize 
the  ideas  of  the  Hindu  regarding  God,  and  the 
soul,  and  sin,  and  salvation,  and  heaven,  and  hell, 
and  the  many  sore  trials  of  this  mortal  life.  He 
will  then  certainly  have  a  much  more  vivid  per- 
ception of  the  Divine  origin  and  transcendent 
importance  of  his  own  religion.  Farther,  he  will 
then  extend  a  helping  hand  to  his  Eastern 
brother  with  far  more  of  sensibility  and  tenderness; 


Tlie  Hindu  Religion. 


and,  in  proportion  to  the  measure  of  his  loving 
sympathy  will  doubtless  be  the  measure  of  his 
success.  A  yearning  heart  will  accomplish  more 
than  the  most  cogent  argument. 

In  this  Tract  we  confine  ourselves  to  the  laying  The 

purpose  of 

down  of  great  leading  facts  and  principles;  but  theivact. 
these  will  be  dwelt  upon  at  sufficient  length  to 
give  the  reader,  we  trust,  an  accurate  conception 
of  the  general  character  and  history  of  Hinduism. 
We  shall  also  briefly  contrast  the  system  with 
Christianity. 

The  history  of  Hinduism  may  be  divided  into 
three  great  periods, — each  embracing,  in  round 
numbers,  about  a  thousand  years. 


The  Yedas. 

Regarding  the  earliest  form  of  Hinduism  we  The  moat 
must  draw  our  conceptions  from  the  Yeda,  or,  to  writings  o( 

India. 

speak  more  accurately,  the  four  Yedas.  The  most  j 
important  of  these  is  the  Rig  Yeda ;  and  internal  j 
evidence  proves  it  to  be  the  most  ancient.  It  con- 
tains above  a  thousand  hymns ;  the  earliest  of 
which  may  date  from  about  the  year  1500  B.a 
The  Hindus,  or,  as  they  called  themselves,  the 
Aryas,  had  by  that  time  entered  India,  and  were 
dwelling  in  its  north-western  portion,  the  Panj4b. 
The   hymns,  we  may  say,  are  racy  of  the  soil. 


The  Mindu  Religion. 


There  is  no  reference  to  the  life  led  by  the  people 
before  they  crossed  the  Himalaya  mountains,  or 
entered  by  some  of  the  passes  of  Afghanistan. 

It  would  be  very  interesting  if  we  could  discover 
the  pre-Yedic  form  of  the  religion.  Inferentially 
this  may,  to  some  extent,  be  done  by  comparing 
the  teachings  of  the  Yedas  with  those  contained  in 
the  books  of  other  branches  of  the  great  Aryan 
family — such  as  the  Greeks,  the  Bomans,  and 
above  all,  the  Iranians  (ancient  Persians). 

The  ancient  Hindus  were  a  highly-gifted,  ener- 
getic race ;  civilized  to  a  considerable  extent ;  not 
nomadic ;  chiefly  shepherds  and  herdsmen,  but  also 
acquainted  with  agriculture.  Commerce  was  not 
unknown;  the  river  Indus  formed  a  highway  to 
the  Indian  Ocean,  and  at  least  the  Phenicians 
availed  themselves  of  it  from  perhaps  the  seven- 
teenth century  B.C.,  or  even  earlier. 

As  soon  as  we  begin  to  study  the  hymns  of  the 
Yeda,  we  are  struck  by  their  strongly  religious 
character.  Tacitly  assuming  that  the  book  contains 
the  whole  of  the  early  literature  of  India,  many 
writers  have  expressed  themselves  in  strong  terms 
regarding  the  primitive  Hindus  as  religious  above 
all  other  races.  But,  as  we  read  on,  we  become 
convinced  that  these  poems  are  a  selection,  rather 
than  a  collection,  of  the  literature ;  and  the  con- 
viction grows  that  the  selection  has  been  made 
by  priestly  hands  for  priestly  purposes.     An  acute 


The  hymns 
are 

strongly 
religious. 


They  are  a 
selection. 


The  Hindu,  Religion, 


critic  has  affirmed  that  the  Yedic  poems  are  "  pre-   ^i^ 

^  *■  eminently 

eminently  sacerdotal,  and  in  no  sense  popular."  ^  sacerdotal. 
We  can  thus  explain  a  pervading  characteristic  of 
the  book  which  has  taken  most  readers  by  surprise. 
There  is  a  want  of  simplicity  in  the  Veda.  It  is 
often  most  elaborate,  artificial,  over-refined, — one 
might  even  say,  affected.  How  could  these  be  the 
thoughts,  or  those  the  expressions,  of  the  imperfectly 
civilized  shepherds  of  the  Panjab  ?  But  if  it  be 
only  a  hymn  book,  with  its  materials  arranged 
for  liturgical  purposes,  the  difficulty  vanishes.* 
We  shall  accordingly  take  it  for  granted  that  the 
Yeda  presents  only  the  religious  thought  of  the 
ancient  Hindus, — and  not  the  whole  of  the  religious 
thought,  but  only  that  of  a  very  influential  portion 
of  the  race.  With  all  the  qualifications  now  stated, 
the  Yeda  must  retain  a  position  of  high  importance 
for  all  who  study  Indian  thought  and  life.  The 
religious  stamp  which  the  compilers  of  the  Yeda 
impressed  so  widely  and  so  deeply  has  not  been 
obliterated  in  the  course  of  thirty  centuries. 

The  prevailing  aspect  of  the  religion  presented  Their 
in  the  Yedic  hymns  may  be  broadly  designated  as  Nature. 
Nature- worship. 

All  physical  phenomena  in  India  are  invested 

*  Barth. 

*  Bergaigne,  in  his  able  treatise,  La  Religion  VMique,  insists 
earnestly  ou  what  Le  calls  tlie  *'  liturgical  contamination  of  the 
m^-ths."     See  Vol.  III.  p.  320. 


The  Hindu  Religion. 


physical 
phenoraena 
b  India. 


Their  eflfect 
on  the 
religion. 


The  deities 
are  "  the 
bright  ones," 
according  to 
the  language 
of  the  sacred 
books  of 
India. 


witli  a  grandeur  which  they  do  not  possess  in 
northern  or  even  southern  Europe.  Sunlight, 
moonlight,  starlight,  the  clouds  purpled  with  the 
heam  of  morning,  or  flaming  in  the  west  like  fiery 
chariots  of  heaven ;  to  behold  these  things  in  their 
full  magnificence  one  ought  to  see  them  in  the 
East.  Even  so  the  sterner  phenomena  of  Nature, 
— whirlwind  And  tempest,  lightning  and  thunder, 
flood  and  storm-wave,  plague,  pestilence,  and 
famine ;  all  of  these  oftentimes  assume  in  the  East 
a  character  of  awful  majesty  before  which  man 
cowers  in  helplessness  and  despair.  The  con- 
ceptions and  feelings  hence  arising  have  from  the 
beginning  powerfully  affected  the  religion  of  the 
Hindus.  Everywhere  we  can  trace  the  impress  of 
the  grander  manifestations  of  Nature — the  impress 
of  their  beneficence,  their  beauty,  their  might,  their 
mystery,  or  their  terribleness. 

The  Sanskrit  word  for  god  is  deva,  which  means 
bright,  shining.  Of  physical  phenomena  it  was 
especially  those  connected  with  light  that  en- 
kindled feelings  of  reverence.  The  black  thunder- 
cloud that  enshrouded  Nature,  in  which  the  demon 
had  bound  the  life-giving  waters,  passed  away; 
for  the  glittering  thunderbolt  was  launched,  and 
the  streams  rushed  down,  exulting  in  their  freedom  ; 
and  then  the  heaven  shone  out  again,  pure  and 
peaceful  as  before.  But  such  a  wonder  as  the  Dawn 
— with  far- streaming  radiance,  returning  from  the 


The  Hindu  Religion,  9 

land  of  mystery,  fresh  in  eternal  youth,  and  scat- 
tering the  terrors  of  the  night  before  her ;  who 
could  sufficiently  admire  ?  And  let  it  be  remem- 
bered that  in  the  Hindu  mind  the  interval  between 
admiration  and  adoration  is  exceedingly  small.  . 
Yet,  while  it  is  the  Dawn  which  has  evoked  the 
truest  poetry,  she  has  not  retained  the  highest  place 
in  worship. 

No  divinity  has  fuller  worship  paid  him  than  Irire  much 
Agni,  the  Fire  {Ignis).  More  hymns  are  dedicated 
to  him  than  to  any  other  being.  Astonishment  at 
the  properties  of  fire ;  a  sense  of  his  condescension 
in  that  he,  a  mighty  god,  resides  in  their  dwellings  ; 
his  importance  as  the  messenger  between  heaven 
and  earth,  bearing  the  offerings  aloft;  his  kind- 
ness at  night  in  repelling  the  darkness  and  the 
demons  which  it  hides ;  all  these  things  raised  Agni 
to  an  exalted  place.  He  is  fed  with  pure  clarified 
butter,  and  so  rises  heavenward  in  his  brightness. 
The  physical  conception  of  fire,  however,  adheres 
to  him,  and  he  never  quite  ceases  to  be  the  earthly 
flame ;  yet  mystical  conceptions  thickly  gather 
round  this  root- idea ;  he  is  fire  pervading  all  Nature; 
and  he  often  becomes  supreme,  a  god  of  gods. 

All  this  seems  natural  enough ;    but    one    is  i 


hardly  prepared  for  the  high  exaltation  to  which  J  exalted. 
Soma  is  raised.     Soma  is  properly  the  juice  of  a  j 
milky  plant  (asclepias  acida,  or  sarcostemma  vimi-  ' 
nale),  which,  when  ferm^ited,  is  intoxicating.    The 


10 


7^  Hindu  Religion. 


Soma 
becomes  a 
very  mighty 
god. 


simple-minded  Aryas  were  both  astonished  and  de- 
lighted at  its  effects  :  they  liked  it  themselves ;  and 
they  knew  nothing  more  precious  to  present  to 
their  gods.  Accordingly,  all  of  these  rejoice  in  it. 
Indra  in  particular  quaffs  it  "  like  a  thirst)'^  stag  ;  " 
and  under  its  exhilarating  effects  he  strides  vic- 
toriously to  battle.  Soma  itself  becomes  a  god, 
and  a  very  mighty  one ;  he  is  even  the  creator  and 
father  of  the  gods  ;  ^  the  king  of  gods  and  men ;  '^ 
all  creatures  are  in  his  hand.  It  is  surely  extra- 
ordinary that  the  Aryas  could  apply  such  hyper- 
bolical laudations  to  the  liquor  which  they  had 
made  to  trickle  into  the  vat,  and  which  they  knew 
to  be  the  juice  of  a  plant  they  had  cut  down  on  the 
mountains  and  pounded  in  a  mortar ;  and  that  in- 
toxication should  be  confounded  with  inspiration. 
Yet  of  such  aberrations  we  know  the  human  mind 
is  perfectly  capable. 

We  have  first  referred  to  Agni  and  Soma,  as 
being  the  only  divinities  of  highest  rank  which 
still  retain  their  physical  character.  The  worship 
paid  to  them  was  of  great  antiquity  ;  for  it  is  also 
prescribed  in  the  Persian  A  vesta,  and  must  have 
been  common  to  the  Indo-Iranian  branch  of  the 
Aryan  race  before  the  Hindus  entered  India.  Eut 
we  can  inferentially  go  still  further  back,  and  speak 
of  a  deity  common  to  the  Greeks,  Romans,  Persians, 
and  Hindus.  This  deity  is  Yaruna;  the  most 
*  R.  V.  ix.  42,  4.     .  2  ix.  97,  24. 


Connection 

with 

Persian, 

Greek,  and 

Roman 

systems. 


The  Hindu  Religion.  11 

remarkable  personality  in  tlie  Yeda.     The  name,  "Vanma.the 
which  is  etymologically  connected  with  Ovpavoc,  sig-  i^eaTen. 
nifies  "  the  encompasser,"  and  is  applied  to  heaven 
— especially  the  all- encompassing,  extreme   vault 
of  heaven — not  the  nearer  sky,  which  is  the  region 
of  cloud  and  storm.     It  is  in  describing  Yarun a  [The 

I  sublimity  of 

that    the   Yeda    rises   to    the   greatest  subhmity  tteVedic 

°       ^  •'     description 

which   it  ever   reaches.     A  mysterious  presence,)  **'  ^^^ 
a    mysterious     power,    a    mysterious    knowledge 
amounting  almost  to  omniscience,  are  ascribed  to 
Yaruna.     The  winkings  of  men's  eyes  are  num- 
bered by  him.     He  upholds  order,  both  physical 
and  moral,  throughout  the  universe.     The  winds 
are  his  breath,  the  sun  his  eye,  the  sky  his  garment. 
He  rewards  the  good,  and  punishes  the  wicked.    Yet 
to  the  truly  penitent  he  is  merciful.     It  is  absolutely  contrast 
confounding  to  pass  from  a  hymn  that  celebrates  laudations 
the  serene  majesty  and  awful  purity  of  Yaruna  soma, 
to  one  filled  with  measureless  laudations  of  Soma 
or  Agni.     Could  conceptions  of  divinity  so  incon- 
gruous co-exist  P     That  they  could  not  spring  up 
in  the  same  mind,  or  even  in  the  same  age,  is 
abundantly  manifest.    And,  as  we  have  mentioned.  The  loftier 

•^  _  ...  .  conceptions 

the  loftier  conceptions  of  divinity  are  unquestion-  J^g^^'^j^J 
ably  the  earlier.  It  is  vain  to  speak,  as  certain 
writers  do,  of  religion  gradually  refining  itself,  as 
a  muddy  stream  can  run  itself  pure ;  Hinduism 
resembles  the  Ganges,  which  when  it  breaks  forth 
from   its   mountain   cradle   at  Hard  war,  is  com- 


ments. 


12  The  Hindu  Religion. 

paratively  pellucid,  but,  as  it  rolls  on,  becomes  more 
and  more  muddy,  discoloured,  and  unclean.^ 

Yarious  scholars  affirm  that  Yaruna,  in  more 
ancient,  pre-Yedic  times,  held  a  position  still 
higher  than  the  very  high  one  which  he  still 
retains.  This  is  probable ;  indeed  it  is  certain  that, 
before  later  divinities  had  intruded,  he  held  a  place 

ladnk        /  of  unrivalled  majesty.     But,  in  the  Yedas,  Indi»a 
'  /  is  a  more  conspicuous  figure.     He  corresponds  to 

the  Jupiter  Pluvius  of  the  Romans.  In  north- 
western India,  after  the  burning  heat,  the  annual 
return  of  the  rains  was  hailed  with  unspeakable 

His  achieve-  joy;  it  was  like  life  Succeeding  death.  The  clouds 
that  floated  up  from  the  ocean  were  at  first  thin 
and  light ;  ah !  a  hostile  demon  was  in  them 
carrying  off  the  healing  waters,  and  not  permitting 
them  to  fall ;  but  the  thunderbolt  of  Indra  flashed; 
the  demon  was  driven  away  howling,  and  the 
emancipated  streams  refreshed  the  thirsty  earth. 
Yaruna  was  not  indeed  dethroned,  but  he  was  o\- 
scured,  by  the  achievements  of  the  warlike  Indra ; 
and  the  super-sensuous,  moral  conceptions  that  were 
connected  with  the  former  gradually  faded  from 

*  The  religion  of  the  Indo-European  race,  while  still  united, 
•'recognized  a  supreme  God;  an  organizing  God;  almighty 
omniscient,  moral  ....  This  conception  was  a  heritage  of 
the  past  ....  The  supreme  God  was  originally  the  God  of 
heaven.  So  Darmesteter :  Conteviporary  iCeview,  Oct.,  1879. 
Roth  had  previously  written  with  much  learning  and  acuteness 
to  the  same  effect. 


The  Hindu  Reli^iM:^^  q0^  1-3 

the  minds  of  the  people,  and  Yaruna  ere  long 
became  quite  a  subordinate  figure  in  the  Pantheon. 

The  deities  are  generally  said  in  the  Yeda  to  be  Number  and 

°  •'        ^^  relations  oi 

"  thrice  eleven  "  in  number.     "We  also  hear  of  three  ^"ti^ 

uncertain. 

thousand  three  hundred  and  thirty -nine.  There  is 
no  systeniy  no  fixed  order  in  the  hierarchy  ;  a  deity 
who,  in  one  hymn,  is  quite  subordinate,  becomes 
in  another  supreme;  almost  every  god  becomes 
supreme  in  turn ;  in  one  hymn  he  is  the  son  of  some 
deity,  and  in  another  that  deity's  father,  and  so  (if 
logic  ruled)  his  own  grandfather.  Every  poet  exalts 
his  favourite  god,  till  the  mind  becomes  utterly 
bewildered  in  tracing  the  relationships. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  ^^pgfp  Yaruna,  and 
Indra,  as  well  as  Sjyjia.  Next  to  these  in  im- 
portance may  come  the  deities  of  light,  viz.,  the 
Sun,  the  Dawn,  and  the  two  Asvina  or  beams 
that  accompany  the  dawn.  The  "Winds  come 
next.  The  Earth  is  a  goddess.  The  Waters  are 
goddesses.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  Stars  are 
very  little  mentioned;  and  the  Moon  holds  no 
distinguished  place. 

In  the  religion  of  the  Rig  Yeda  we  hardly  see  Haniiyany 

.         *  fetishism  in 

fetishism — if  by  fetishism  we  mean  the  worship  ^«J^k 
oi  small  physical  objects,  such  as  stones,  shells, 
plants,  etc.,  which  are  believed  to  be  charged  (so 
to  speak)  with  divinity ;  though  this  appears  in  the 
fourth  Yeda — the  Atharva.  But  even  in  the  ^-ig 
Yeda,  almost  any  object  that  is  grand,  beneficent,  or 


14 


The  Hindu  Religion, 


Early 
tendency 
towards 
pantheism. 


Reverence 
of  the  dead. 


terrible,  may  be  adored ;  and  implements  associated 
with  worship  are  themselves  worshipped.  Thus, 
the  war-chariot,  the  plough,  the  furrow,  etc.,  are 
prayed  to. 

A  pantheistic  conception  of  Nature  was  also 
present  in  the  Indian  mind  from  very  early  times, 
although  its  development  was  later.  Even  in  the 
earliest  hymns,  any  portion  of  Nature  with  which 
man  is  brought  into  close  relation  may  be  adored.^ 

We  must  on  no  account  overlook  the  reverence 
paid  to  the  dead.  The  Pitris  (patres)  or  Fathers 
are  frequently  referred  to  in  the  Yeda.  They 
are  clearly  distinguished  from  the  devas  or  gods. 
In  later  writings  they  are  also  distinguished  from 
men,  as  having  been  created  separately  from  them ; 
but  this  idea  does  not  appear  in  the  Yeda.  Yama, 
the  first  mortal,  travelled  the  road  by  which  none 
returns,  and  now  drinks  the  Soma  in  the  inner- 
most of  heaven,  surrounded  by  the  other  Fathers. 
These  come  also,  along  with  '-he  gods,  to  the 
banquets  prepared  for  them  on  earth,  and,  sitting 
on  the  sacred  grass,  rejoice  in  the  exhilarating 
draught. 

The  hymns  of  the  Rig  Y.  celebrate  the  power, 
exploits,  or  generosity  of  the  deity  invoked;  and 
sometimes  his  personal  beauty.  The  praises 
lavished  on  the  god  not  only  secured  his  favour, 
but  increased  his  power  to  help  the  worshipper. 
'  TexU,  Y.  412. 


The  subjects 
of  the  hymns 
of  the  Ilig 
Veda. 


The  Hindu  Religion.  15 

There  is   one   prayer  (bo-called)    whicli   is  es-  ThehoUest 

r      J  \  I  prayer. 

teemed  pre-eminently  holy  ;  generally  called — ^from 
the  metre  in  which  it  is  composed — the  Gayatri.^ 
It  may  he  rendered  thus : 

"Let  us  meditate  on  that  excellent  glory  of  the  Divine  Sun 
(or  Vivifier) ;  may  he  enlighten  our  understandings  I " 

It  has  always  been  frequently  repeated  in  important 
rites. 

So  far  we  have  referred   almost  exclusively  to 
the   Rig  Yeda.     The  next   in  importance  is   the  Atharva 
Atharva,  sometimes   termed   the   Brahma  Yeda; 
which  we  may  render  the  Veda  of  incantations. 
It  contains  six  hundred  and  seventy  hymns.     Of  inferior 

1  •        T       T\  •      T  morally  and 

these  a  few  are  equal  to  those  lu  the  R12:  v. :  but,  spiritually 

^  ^  _  .    b  '  '    to  the  Rig 

as  a  whole,  the  Atharva  is  far  inferior  to  the  other  '^*^^*- 
in    a    moral    and    spiritual    point    of    view.      It. 
abounds  in  imprecations,  charms  for  the  destruc-  | 
tion  of  enemies,  and  so  forth.     Talismans,  plants, 
or  gems,  are  invoked,  as  possessed  of   irresistible 
might    to    kill    or   heal.     The    deities    are   often 
different  from  those  of  the  Rig  V.     The  Atharva 
manifests  a  great  dread  of  malignant  beings,  whose  1 
wrath  it  deprecates.     We  have  thus  simple  demon- f  Explanation 
worship.     How  is  this  great  falling-oif  to  be  ex-  terior*tion. 
plained  ?     In   one   of   two  ways.     Either  a  con- 
siderable time  intervened  between  the  composition 
of  the  two  books,  during  which  the  original  faith 
*  Rig.  V.  iiL  62,  10. 


Tne 
offeringi^ 


16  The  Hindu  Religion. 

had  rapidly  degenerated,  probably  through  contact 
with  aboriginal  races  who  worshipped  dark  and 
sanguinary  deities  ;  or  else  there  had  existed  from 
the  beginning  two  fornis  of  the  religion — the 
higher  of  which  is  embodied  in  the  hymns  of  the 
Rig  y.,  and  the  lower  in  the  Atharva,  We 
believe  the  latter  explanation  to  be  correct ; 
although  doubtless  the  superstitions  of  the  ab- 
origines must  all  along  have  exerted  an  influence 
on  the  faith  of  the  invaders. 

The  offerings  presented  to  the  gods  consisted 
chiefly  of  clarified  butter,  curdled  milk,  rice,  cakes, 
and  fermented  Soma  juice,  which  was  generally 
mixed  with  water  or  milk.  All  was  thrown  into 
the  fire,  which  bore  them  or  their  essences  to  the 
gods.  The  Soma  was  also  sprinkled  on  the  sacred 
grass,  which  was  strown  on  the  floor;  and  on 
which  the  gods  and  fathers  were  invited  to  come 
and  seat  themselves,  that  they  might  enjoy  the 
cheering  beverage.  The  remainder  was  drunk  by 
the  officiating  priests.  The  offerings  were  under- 
stood to  nourish  and  gratify  the  gods  as  corporeal 
beings. 
I  Animal  victims  were    also    offered    up.      We 

hear  of  sheep,  goats,  bulls,  cows,  and  buffaloes 
being  sacrificed,  and  sometimes  in  large  numbers. 
But  the  great  offering  was  the  Asvamedha,  or 
sacrifice  of  the  horse.  The  body  of  the  horse  was 
hacked  to  pieces  ;   the  fragments  were  dressed — 


victims. 


The  Hindu  Religion.  17 

part  was  boiled,  part  roasted  ;  some  of  tlie  flesh 
was  then  eaten  by  the  persons  present,  and  the 
rest  was  offered  to  the  gods.  Tremendous  was  the 
potency — at  least  as  stated  in  later  times — of  a 
hundred  such  sacrifices  ;  it  rendered  the  offerer 
equal  or  superior  to  the  gods; — even  the  mighty 
Tndra  trembled  for  his  sovereignty,  and  strove  to 
hinder  the  consummation  of  the  awful  rite. 

Human    sacrifice   was    not   unknown ;    though  Human 

«  n       .  .       .         ,  .         sacrifice. 

there  are  very  few  allusions  to  it  in  the  earlier 
hymns. 

Even  from  the  first,  however,  the  rite  of  sacrifice  sacrifice 

deemed  of 

occupies  a  very  high  place ;  and  allusions  to  it  are  ^^^Se 
exceedingly  frequent.  The  observances  connected 
with  it  are  said  to  be  the  "  first  religious  rites." 
Sacrifice  was  early  believed  to  be  expiatory  ;  it 
removed  sin.  It  was  substitutionary ;  the  victim 
stood  in  place  of  the  offerer.  All  order  in  the 
universe  depends  upon  it ;  it  is  "  the  nave  of  the 
world- wheel.**  Sometimes  Vishnu  is  said  to  be 
the  sacrifice ;  sometimes  even  the  Supreme  Being 
himself  is  so.  Elaborated  ideas  and  a  complex 
ritual,  which  we  could  have  expected  to  grow  up 
only  in  the  course  of  ages,  appear  from  very  early 
times.  We  seem  compelled  to  draw  the  inference 
that  sacrifice  formed  an  essential,  and  very  im- 
portant, part  of  the  pre-Vedic  faith. ^ 

*  The  rites,  says  Haug,  "must  have  existed  from  times  im- 
luemorial."     Aitareya  Brdhmana,  pp.  7,  9. 

c 


18 


The  Hindu  Religion. 


No  image- 
worship. 


In  the  Yeda,  worship  is  a  kind  of  barter.  In 
exchange  for  praises  and  offerings,  the  deity  is 
asked  to  bestow  favours.  Temporal  blessings  are 
implored,  such  as  food,  wealth,  life,  children,  cows, 
horses,  success  in  battle,  the  destruction  of  enemies, 
and  so  forth.  Not  much  is  said  regarding  sin,  and 
the  need  of  forgiveness.  A  distinguished  scholar^ 
has  said  that "  the  religious  notion  of  sin  is  wanting 
altogether;"  but  this  affirmation  is  decidedly  too 
sweeping. 

The  worship  exemplified  in  the  Veda  is  not 
image- worship.  Images  of  the  fire,  or  the  winds, 
or  the  waters,  could  hardly  be  required ;  and, 
while  the  original  Nature- worship  lasted,  idols 
must  have  been  nearly  unknown.  Yet,  tlie 
description  of  various  deities  is  so  precise  and 
full  that  it  seems  to  be  probably  drawn  from 
visible  representations  of  them.  Worship  was 
personal  and  domestic  ;  not,  in  any  way,  public. 
Indeed,  two  men  praying  at  the  same  time  had  to 
pray  quite  apart,  so  that  neither  might  disturb  the 
other.  Each  dealt  with  heaven,  so  to  speak,  solely 
on  his  own  behalf. 
No  temples.  Wb  hear  of  no  places  set  apart  as  temples  in 
Yedic  times. 


No  public 
worship. 


A  Yeda  consists  of  two  parts  called  Mantra  or 
Sanhifd,  and  Brdhmana.     The  first  is  composed  of 

*  Weber,  History  of  Indian  Literature,  p.  38. 


The  Hindu  Religion,  19 


hymns.     The  second  is  a  statement  of  ritual,  and  I'^e 

•^  ^  ^     ^  treatises  on 

is  generally  in  prose.  The  existing  Br^hmanas  "*"*^- 
are  several  centuries  later  than  the  great  body  of 
the  Hymns,  and  were  probably  composed  when  the 
Hindus  had  crossed  the  Indus,  and  were  advancing 
along  the  Gangetic  valley.  The  oldest  may  be- 
about  the  date  of  800  or  700  B.C. 

The  Brahmanas  are  very  poor,  both  in  thought ' 
and  expression.  They  have  hardly  their  match 
in  any  literature  for  "  pedantry  and  downright 
absurdity."^  Poetical  feeling,  and  even  religious 
feeling,  seem  gone ;  all  is  dead  and  dry  as  dust. 
By  this  time  the  Sanskrit  language  had  ceased  to 
be  generally  understood.  The  original  texts  could 
hardly  receive  accessions ;  the  most  learned  man 
could  do  little  more  than  interpret,  or  perhaps 
misinterpret,  them.  The  worshipper  looked  on ; 
he  worshipped  now  by  proxy.  Thus  the  priest, 
had  risen  greatly  in  importance.  He  alone  knew 
the  sacred  verses  and  the  sacred  rites.     An  error  ;  Growth  oi 

I  pnestly 

in  the  pronunciation  of  the  mystic  text  might  \yo^^f- 
bring  destruction  on  the  worshipper:  what  could 
he  do  but  lean  upon  the  priest  ?  The  latter  could 
say  the  prayers,  if  he  could  not  pray.  All  this 
worked  powerfully  for  the  elevation  of  the 
Brahmans,  the  "men  of  prayer;"  they  steadily 
grew  into  a  class,  a  caste ;  and  into  this  no  one 
could    enter   who   was    not    of    priestly   descent. 

1  Max  Miiller,  Ancient  Sanskrit  Literature,  p.  389 


2u 


The  Hindu  Religion. 


Moral 

character  of 
the  Veda. 


Schools  for     Schools  Were  now  found  necessary  for  the  study  of 
sacredbo^oks,  the  sacred  books,  rites,  and  traditions.     The  im- 

rites,  and  i   •   i        -i  i  ^  i  • 

traditions,  portanco  which  these  attach  to  theology — doctrine 
— is  very  small :  the  externals  of  religion  are  all 
in  all.  The  rites,  in  fact,  now  threw  the  very 
gods  into  the  shade ;  everything  depended  on  their 
due  performance.  And  thus  the  Hindu  ritual 
gradually  grew  up  into  a  stupendous  system,  the 
most  elaborate,  complex,  and  burdensome  which 
the  earth  has  seen. 

It  is  time,  however,  to  give  a  brief  estimate  of 
the  moral  character  of  the  Veda.  The  first  thing 
that  strikes  us  is  its  inconsistency.  Some  hymns 
— especially  those  addressed  to  Yaruna — rise  as 
high  as  Gentile  conceptions  regarding  deity  ever 
rose  ;  others — even  in  the  Rig  V  — sink  miserably 
low ;  and  in  the  Atharva  we  find,  "  even  in  the 
lowest  depth,  a  lower  still." 

The  character  of  Indra — who  has  displaced  or 
overshadowed  Varuna^ — has  no  high  attributes. 
He  is  "  voracious ;  '*  his  "  inebriety  is  most  intense ;" 
he  "dances  with  delight  in  battle."  His  wor- 
shippers supply  him  abundantly  with  the  drink 
he  loves  ;  and  he  supports  them  against  their  foes, 
ninety  and  more  of  whose  cities  he  has  destroyed. 
We  do  not  know  that  these  foes,  the  Dasyus,  wore 
morally  worse  than  the  intrusive  Aryas ;  but  the 
feelings  of  the  latter  towards  the  former  were  of 

1  "  The  haughty  Indra  takes  precedence  of  all  gods."  Rig  V. 
1.  65. 


Indra 

supersedes 

Vaniiia. 


The  Hindu  Religion.  21 

unexampled  ferocity.     Here  is  one  passage  out  of 
multitudes  similar : 

'*  Hurl  thy  hottest  thunderbolt  upon  them  !  Uproot  them  I 
Cleave  them  asunder  I  0  Indra,  overpower,  subdue,  slay  the 
demon  !  Pluck  him  up  !  Cut  him  through  the  middle  !  Crush 
his  head  !  " 

Indra,  if  provided  with  Soma,  is  always 
indulgent  to  his  votaries;  he  supports  them  per 
fas  et  nefas.  Yaruna,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
grave,   just,   and  to   wicked   men,   severe.^     The  Detenoi*. 

tion  begins 

supersession  of  Yaruna  by  Indra,  then,  is  early, 
easily  understood.  We  see  the  principle  on 
which  it  rests  stated  in  the  Old  Testament. 
"  Ye  cannot  serve  the  Lord,"  said  Joshua  to  the 
elders  of  Israel ;  "  for  He  is  a  holy  God."  Even 
80  Jeremiah  points  sorrowfully  to  the  fact  that  the 
Pagan  nations  clung  to  their  false  gods,  while 
Israel  was  faithless  to  the  true.  As  St.  Paul 
expresses  it :  "  they  did  not  like  to  retain  God  in 
their  knowledge."  Unless  this  principle  is  fully 
taken  into  account,  we  cannot  understand  the 
historical  development  of  Hinduism. 

The  Yeda  frequently  ascribes  to  the  gods,  to 
use  the  language  of  Max  Miiller,  "sentiments  and 
passions  unworthy  of  deity."     In  truth,  except  injvarunathe 
the  case  of  Yaruna,  there  is  not  one  divinity  that)  posIessecTo? 
IS  possessed  oi  pure  and  elevated  attributes.  /  elevated 

^  "^  I  attributes. 

^  '  •  These  two  personages  [Indra  and  Varuna]  sum  up  the 
two  conceptions  of  divinity,  between  which  the  religious  con- 
Bciousness  of  the  Vedic  Aryans  seems  to  oscillate." — Bergaigne, 
La  Religion  Vedique,  Vol.  III.  p.  149. 


22 


The  HiTidu  Religion, 


II. 


Speculation 
begins. 


Rise  of 
asceticism. 


Philosophy;  and  Ritualism. 

During  the  Yedic  period — certainly  towards  its 
conclusion — a  tendency  to  speculation  had  begun 
to  appear.  Probably  it  had  all  along  exi^^ted  in 
the  Hindu  mind,  but  had  remained  latent  during 
the  stirring  period  when  the  people  were  engaged 
in  incessant  wars.  Climate,  also,  must  have  af- 
fected the  temperament  of  the  race;  and,  as  the 
Hindus  steadily  pressed  down  the  valley  of  the 
Ganges  into  warmer  regions,  their  love  of  repose 
and  contemplative  quietism  would  continually | 
deepen.  And  when  the  Brahmans  became  a  fully' 
developed  hierarchy,  lavishly  endowed,  with  no 
employment  except  the  performance  of  religious 
ceremonies,  their  minds  could  avoid  stagnation 
only  by  having  recourse  to  speculative  thought. 
Again,  asceticism  has  a  deep  root  in  human  nature ;  ) 
earnest  souls,  conscious  of  their  own  weakness, 
will  fly  from  the  temptations  of  the  world.  Various 
causes  thus  led  numbers  of  men  to  seek  a  life  of 
seclusion  ;  they  dwelt  chiefly  in  forests,  and  there 
they  revolved  the  everlasting  problems  of  existence, 
creation,  the  soul,  and  God.  The  lively  Greeks, 
for  whom,  with  all  their  high  intellectual  endow- 
ments, a  happy  sensuous  existence  was  nearly  all 


The  Hindu  Religion.  23 

in  all,  were  amazed  at  the  numbers  in  Northern 
India,  who  appeared  weary  of  the  world  and  in- 
different to  life  itself.  By  and  for  these  recluses 
were  gradually  composed  the  Aranyakas,  or  forest 
treatises  ;  and  out  of  these  grew  a  series  of  more 
regular  works,  called  Upanishads.^  At  least  250 1 
of  these  are  known  to  exist.  They  have  been 
called  ''  guesses  at  truth  ;  "  they  are  more  so  than 
formal  solutions  of  great  questions.  Many  of  them 
are  unintelligible  rhapsodies ;  others  rise  almost  to 
sublimity.  They  frequently  contradict  each  other ; 
the  same  writer  sometimes  contradicts  himself. 
One  prevailing  characteristic  is  all-important ;  their 
doctrine  is  pantheism.     The  pantheism  is  some-  They  are 

^  pantheistiA 

times  not  so  much  a  coldly  reasoned  system  as  an 
aspiration,  a  yearning,  a  deep-felt  need  of  some- 
thing better  than  the  mob  of  gods  who  came  in  the 
train  of  Indra,  and  the  darker  deities  who  were  still 
crowding  in.  Even  in  spite  of  the  counteracting 
power  of  the  Gospel,  mysticism  has  run  easily  into 
pantheism  in  Europe;  and  orthodox  Christians 
sometimes  slide  unconsciously  into  it — or  at  least 
into  its  language.^    But  as  has  been  already  noted, 

^  The  meaning  of  the  term  is  not  quite  certain.     Sessions,  or 
Instructions,  may  perhaps  be  the  rendering.   So  Monier  Williams. 

^  For  example,  Wwdsworth  : 

Thou,  Thou  alone 
Art  everlasting,  and  the  blessed  Spirits 
Which  Thou  includest,  as  the  sea  her  waves. 

Excursion.  Book  IV. 


24:  The  Hindu  Religion. 

a  strain  of  pantheism  existed  in  the  Hindu  mind 
from  early  times. 

Accordingly,  these  hermit  sages,  these  mystic 
dreamers,  soon  came  to  identify  the  human  soul 
with  God.  And  the  chief  end  of  man  was  to  seek 
that  the  stream  derived  from  God  should  return 
to  its  source,  and  ceasing  to  wander  through  the 
wilderness  of  this  world,  should  find  repose  in  the 
bosom  of  the  illimitable  deep,  the  One,  the  All. 
The  Brahmans  attached  the  Upanishads  to  the 
Yeda  proper,  and  they  soon  came  to  be  regarded 
as  its  most  sacred  part.  In  this  way  the  influence 
these  treatises  have  exercised  has  been  immense 
more  than  any  other  portion  of  the  earlier  Hindu 
writings,  they  have  moulded  the  thoughts  of  suc- 
ceeding generations.  Philosophy  had  thus  begun. 
Six  The  speculations  of  which  we  see  the  commence- 

philosophic  •*• 

schools.  ment  and  progress  in  the  Upanishads  were  finally 
developed  and  classified  in  a  series  of  writings 
called  the  six  Sastras  or  <^«r.sflw«5.  These  constitute 
the  regular,  official  philosophy  of  India.  They  are 
without  much  difficulty  reducible  to  three  leading 
schools  of  thought — the  Nyaya,  the  S^nkhya,  and 
the  Yedanta. 

Roundly  and  speaking  generally,  we  may  cha- 
racterize these  systems  as  theistic,  atheistic,  and 
pantheistic  respectively. 

'fheNyftya.  It  is  doubtful,  howcver,  whether  the  earlier  form 
of  the  Nyaya  was  theistic  or  not.     The  later  form 


The  Hindu  Religion.  25 

is  s©  ;  but  it  says  nothing  of  the  moral  attributes 
of  God,  nor  of  His  government.  The  chief  end  of 
man,  according  to  the  Nyaya,  is  deliverance  from 
pain ;  and  this  is  to  be  attained  by  cessation  from 
all  action,  whether  good  or  bad. 

The  Sankhya  declares  matter  to  be  self-existent  The 

•^  ...  Sankhya. 

and  eternal.  Soul  is  distinct  from  matter,  and  also 
eternal.  When  it  attains  true  knowledge  it  is 
liberated  from  matter  and  from  pain.  The  Sankhya 
holds  the  existence  of  God  to  be  without  proof. 

But   the   leading   philosophy   of   India   is   un-l  The 

I    V6clfl.ntft 

questionably  the  Yedanta.     The  name  means  "  the! 
end  or  scope  of  the  Ycda ;  "  and  if  the  Upanishads] 
were  the  Yeda,  instead  of  treatises  tacked  on  to  it, 
the  name  would  be  correct :  for  the  Vedanta,  like 
the  Upanishads,  inculcates  pantheism. 

The  form  which  this  philosophy  ultimately  as- 
sumed is  well  represented  in  the  treatise  called  the 
Vedanta  Sara,  or  Essence  of  the  Yedanta.  A  few 
extracts  will  suffice  to  exhibit  its  character.  "  The 
unity  ot  the  soul  and  God  ;  this  is  the  scope  of  all 
Vedanta  treatises."  We  have  frequent  references 
made  to  the  "  great  saying "  Tat  twam^  i.e..  That 
art  thou,  or  Thou  art  God;  and  Aham  Brahma,  {.e., 
I  am  God.  Again  it  is  said,  *'The  whole  universe 
is  God."  God  is  "  existence  (or  more  exactly,  an 
existent  thing ^),  knowledge,  and  joy."  Knowledge, 
not  a  knower ;  joy,  not  one  who  rejoices. 
^  Or,  the  thing  that  really  is — ^the  6tfrtn  if. 


26 


The  Hindu  Religion. 


It  teaches 

absolute 

idealism. 


Doctrine  of 
"  the  Self." 


Everything  else  has   only  a  seeming  existeuce, 
which  is  in  consequence  of  ignorance  (or  illusion) 
Ignorance   makes   the  soul  think   itself   different 
from  God ;  and  it  also  "  projects  "  the  appearance 
of  an  external  world. 

'*  He  who  knows  God  becomes  God."  "  When 
He,  the  first  and  last  is  discerned,  one's  own  acts 
are  annihilated." 

Meditation,  without  distinction  of  subject  and 
object,  is  the  highest  form  of  thought.  It  is  a 
high  attainment  to  say,  "I  am  God;"  but  the 
consummation  is  when  thought  exists  without  an 
object. 

There  are  four  states  of  the  soul — waking, 
dreaming,  dreamless  sleep,  and  the  "  fourth  state," 
or  pure  intelligence.  The  waking  man  is  in  dense 
ignorance ;  in  sleep  he  is  freed  from  part  of  this 
ignorance ;  in  dreamless  sleep  he  is  freed  from  still 
more  ;  but  the  consummation  is  when  he  attains 
something  beyond  this,  which  it  seems  cannot  be 
explained,  and  is  therefore  called  the  fourth  state. 

The  name,  which  in  later  writings  is  most  fre- 
quently given  to  the  *'  one  without  a  second,"  ^  is 
Atman,  which  properly  means  Self.  Much  is  said 
of  the  way  in  which  the  self  in  each  man  is  to 
recover,  or  discover,  its  unity  with  the  Supreme  or 
real  self.  For  as  the  one  sun  shining  in  the 
heavens  is  reflected,  often  in  distorted  images,  in 
1  Ekamadyitiyam. 


statements. 


The  Hindu  Rd'igion.  717 

multitudes  of  vessels  filled  with  water,  so  the  one 
Self  is  present  in  all  human  minds.^  There  is  not  inconsistent 
— perhaps  there  could  not  be — consistency  in  the 
statements  of  the  relation  of  the  seeming  to  the 
real.  In  most  of  the  older  hooks  a  practical,  or 
conventional,  existence  is  admitted  of  the  Self  in 
each  man,  but  not  a  real  existence.  But  when  the 
conception  is  fully  formulated,  the  finite  world  is 
not  admitted  to  exist,  save  as  a  mere  illusion.  All 
phenomena  are  a  play — a  play  without  plot  or  pur- 
pose, which  thu  Absolute  plays  with  itself.^  This  is 
surely  transcendent  transcendentalism.  One  regrets 
that  speculation  did  not  take  one  step  more,  and 
declare  that  the  illusion  was  itself  illusory.  Then 
we  should  have  gone  round  the  circle,  and  returned 
to  sensiM  communis.  We  must  be  pardoned  if 
we  seem  to  speak  disrespectfully  of  such  fantastic 
speculations  ;  we  desire  rather  to  speak  regretfully 
of  the  many  generations  of  men  which  successively 
occupied  themselves  with  such  unprofitable  dreams ; 
for  this  kind  of  thought  is  traceable  even  from 
Yedic  days.  It  is  more  fully  developed  in  the 
Upanishads.  In  them  occurs  the  classical  sentence 
80  frequently  quoted  in  later  literature,  which 
declares  that  the  Absolute  being  is  the  "  one  [thing] 
without  a  second.'** 

'■  This  illustration  is  in  the  mouth  of  every  Hindu  disputant 
ftb  the  present  day. 

*  Bartn,  p.  76.  •  Ekamadvitlyam. 


88  The  Hindu  Religion. 

The  Git*.  The  book  wMcli  perliaps   above  all  others  has 

moulded  the  mind  of  India  in  more  recent  days 
is  the  Bhagavad  Gita,  or  Song  of  the  Holy  One. 
It  is  written  in  stately  and  harmonious  verse,  and 
has  achieved  the  same  task  for  Indian  philosophy 
as  Lucretius  did  for  ancient  Epicureanism.-^  It  is 
eclectic,  and  succeeds,  in  a  sort  of  way,  in  forcing 
the  leading  systems  of  Indian  thought  into 
seeming  harmony. 

Some  have  thought  they  could  discern  in  these 
daring  speculations  indications  of  souls  groping 
after  God,  and  saddened  because  of  the  difficulty 
of  finding  Him.  Were  it  so,  all  our  sympathies 
would  at  once  be  called  forth.     But  no  ;  we  see  in 

inteUectua]    thcsc  writiuffs  far  more  of  intellectual  pride  than  of 

pride.  "  ^  ^ 

spiritual  sadness.  Those  ancient  dreamers  never 
learned  their  own  ignorance.  They  scarcely  recog- 
nized the  limitations  of  the  hu  un  mind.  And 
when  reason  could  take  them  no  farther,  they  sup- 
plemented it  by  dreams  and  ecstasy  until,  in  the 
Yoga  philosophy,  they  rushed  into  systematized 
mysticism  and  magic,  far  more  extravagant  than 
the  wildest  theurgy  of  the  degraded  Neoplatonism 
of  the  Roman  empire. 

A  learned  writer  thus  expresses  himself  : 

**  The  unly  one  of  the  six  schools  that  seems  to  recognize  the 


Volui  tibi  suaviloquenti 
Carmine  Pierio  ratioiiem  exponere  nostram 
Et  quasi  Mvisreo  dulci  contingere  melle. 


The  Hindu  lidigiov.  29 

doctrine  of  divine  providence  is  the  Yoga.  It  thus  seems  that 
the  consistent  followers  of  these  systems  can  have,  in  their 
perfected  state,  no  religion,  no  action,  and  no  moral  character."* 

And  now  to  take  a  brief  review  of  the  whole 
subject.     The  Hindu  sages  were  men  of  acute  and  Indian 

.  philosophy  a 

patient  thought ;  but  their  attempt  to  solve  the  sad  failure, 
problem  of  the  Divine  and  human  natures,  of 
human  destiny  and  duty,  has  ended  in  total  failure. 
Each  system  baseless,  and  all  mutually  conflicting  ; 
systems  cold  and  cheerless,  that  frown  on  love  and 
virtuous  exertion,  and  speak  of  annihilation  or  its 
equivalent,  absorption,  as  our  highest  hope  :  such 
is  the  poor  result  of  infinite  speculation.  "The 
world  by  wisdom  knew  not  God."  Oh  that  India 
would  learn  the  much-needed  lesson  of  humility 
which  the  experience  of  ages  ought  to  teach  her ! 

While  speculation  was  thus  busy,  Sacerdotali!?m  sacerdotai. 

ism. 

was  also  continually  extending  its  influence.  The 
Brahman,  the  man  of  prayer,  had  made  himself 
indispensable  in  all  sacred  rites.  He  alone — as  we 
have  seen — knew  the  holy  texts;  he  alone  could 
rightly  pronounce  the  words  of  awful  mystery  and 
power  on  which  depended  all  weal  or  woe.  On  all 
religious  occasions  the  priest  must  be  called  in, 
and,  on  all  occasions,  implicitly  obeyed.  For  a 
considerable  time  the  princes  struggled  against  the 
encroachments  of  the  priests ;  but,  in  the  end,  they 
were  completely   vanquished.      Never  was  sacer- 

*  Dr.  J.  Muir,  in  North  British  Review  ^  No.  xlix.  p. 


30  The  Hindu  Religion. 

The  tyranny  dotal  tyranny  more  absolute ;  the  proudest  pope 
dotauam.  j^  mediODval  times  never  lorded  it  over  Western 
Christendom  with  such  unrelenting  rigour  as  the 
Brahmans  exercised  over  both  princes  and  people. 
The  feeling  of  the  priests  is  expressed  in  a  well- 
known  stanza ; 

"All  the  world  is  subject  to  the  gods  ;  the  gods  are  subject 
to  the  holy  texts  ;  the  holy  texts  are  subject  to  the  Brahman  ; 
therefore  the  Brahman  is  my  Gkni." 

Yes,  the  sacred  man  could  breathe  the  spell  which 

made  earth  and  hell  and  heaven  itself  to  tremble. 

He  therefore  logically  called  himself   an  earthly 

god.     Indeed,  the  Brahman  is  always  logical.     He 

draws  conclusions  from  premises  with  iron  rigour 

of  reasoning ;  and  with  side-issues  he  has  nothing 

to  do.     He  stands  upon  his  rights.     Woe  to  the 

being — god  or  man — who  comes  in  conflict  with 

I      him! 

Ritual  {  The  priests  naturally  multiplied  religious  cere- 

becomes  I  .  .         1       'i     1     1 

extravagant,  mouies,    and   made  ntual   the   soul   of  worship. 

Sacrifice  especially  assumed  still  more  and  more 
exaggerated  forms  —  becoming  more  protracted, 
more  expensive,  more  bloody.  A  hecatomb  of 
victims  was  but  a  small  offering.  More  and  more 
awful  powers  were  ascribed  to  the  rite. 

But  the  tension  was  too  great,  and  the  bow 
snapped.  Buddhism  arose.  We  may  call  this 
remarkable  system  the  product  of  the  age — an  in- 
evitable rebellion  acainst  intolerable  sacerdotalism; 


The  Hindu  Religion,  31 

and  yet  we  must  not  overlook  the  importance  of 
the  very  distinct  and  lofty  personality  of  Buddha 
(Sakya  Muni)  as  a  power  moulding  it  into 
shape. 

"Wherever  it  extended,  it  effected    a    vast  re-  Buddhism, 
volution  in  Indian  thought.     Thus,  in  regard  to 
the  institution  of  caste,  Buddha  did  not  attack  it, 
— he  did  not,  it  would  appear,  even  formally  re- 
nounce it;  as  a  mere  social  institution,  he  seems 
to  have  acknowledged  it ;  hut  then  he  held  that 
all  the  religious  were  freed  from  its  restrictions. 
"My  law,"  said  he,  "is  a  law  of  mercy  for  all;" 
and  forthwith  he  proceeded  to  admit  men  of  every  1 
caste  into  the  closest  fellowship  with  himself  and 
his  followers.    Then,  he  preached — he,  though  not 
a  Brahman — in  the  vernacular  languages, — an  im-  I 
mense  innovation,  which  made  his  teaching  popular. 
He  put  in  the  forefront  of  his  system  certain  great  Moral 
fundamental  principles  of  morality.     He  made  re-  this  system, 
ligion  consist  in  duty,  not  rites.     He  reduced  duty    > 
mainly  to  mercy  or  kindness  towards   all  living 
beings  —  a   marvellous   generalization.      This   set 
aside  all  slaughter  of  animals.     The  mind  of  the 
princes  and  people  was  weary  of  priestcraft  and 
ritualism ;  and  the  teaching  of  the  great  reformer 
was  most  timely.     Accordingly  his  doctrine  spread  B?£t^*** 
with  great  rapidity ;  and  for  a  long  time  it  seemed  ^^^ 
likely  to  prevail  over  Brahmanism.     But  various 
causes  gradually  combined  against  it     Partly,  it  was 


32  The  Hindu  Religion. 

overwhelmed  by  its   own   luxuriance   of   growth ; 
Victory  of      partlv,  Brahmauism,  which  had  all  alone:  maintained 

Brahman-        r  ^  '  f  o 


ism. 


an  intellectual  superiority,  adopted,  either  from  con- 
viction or  policy,  most  of  the  principles  of  Buddh- 
ism, and  skilfully  supplied  some  of  its  main  de- 
ficiencies. Thus  the  Brahmans  retained  their 
position;  and,  at  least  nominally,  their  religion 
won  the  day. 

m. 

Reconstruction.     Modern  Hinduism. 

Revival,  in        BuT  the  Hiuduism  that  grew  up,  as  Buddhism 
fS4, 0?       faded  from  Indian  soil,  was  widely  different  from 

Hinduism. 

the  system  with  which  early  Buddhism  had  con- 
tended. Hinduism,  as  it  has  been  developed  during 
the  last  thousand  or  twelve  hundred  years,  resembles 
a  stupendous  far-extended  building,  or  series  of 
buildings,  -which  is  still  receiving  additions,  while 
portions  have  crumbled  and  are  crumbling  into 
ruin.  Every  conceivable  style  of  architecture,  from 
that  of  the  stately  palace  to  the  meanest  hut,  is 
comprehended  in  it.  On  a  portion  of  the  structure 
here  or  there,  the  eye  may  rest  with  pleasure ;  but, 
as  a  whole,  it  is  an  unsightly,  almost  monstrous, 
pile.  Or,  dismissing  figures,  we  must  describe  it 
as  the  most  extraordinary  creation  which  the  world 
has  seen.  A  jumble  of  all  things ;  polytheistic 
pantheism ;    much   of   Buddhism ;    something   ap- 


The  Hindu.  Religion.  3^3 

pareatly  of  Christianity,  but  terribly  disfigured;  a 
science  wholly  outrageous ;  shreds  of  history  twisted 
into  wild  mythology  ;  the  bold  poetry  of  the  older 
books  understood  as  literal  prose ;  any  local  deity, 
any  demon  of  the  aborigines,  however  hideous, 
identified  with  some  accredited  Hindu  divinity ; 
any  custom,  however  repugnant  to  common  sense 
or  common  decency,  accepted  and  explained ; — in  a 
word,  later  Hinduism  has  been  omnivorous ;  it  has 
partially  absorbed  and  assimilated  every  system  of 
belief,  every  form  of  worship,  with  which  it  has 
come  in  contact.     Only  to  one  or  two  things  hac  ii   oniy  the 

position  0/ 

remained  inflexibly  true.     It  has  steadily  upheld  the 
the  proudest  pretensions  of  the  Brahman  ;  and  it  restrictions 
has  never  relaxed  the  sternest  restrictions  of  Caste.  JJtSSi 
We  cannot  wonder  at  the  severe  judgment  pro- 
nounced  on  Hinduism   by  nearly  every  Western 
author.     According  to  Macaulay,  "all  is  hideous 
and  grotesque  and  ignoble;"  and  the  calmer  De 
Tocqueville  maintains  that  "Hinduism  is  perhaps 
the  only  system  of  belief  that  is  worse  than  having 
no  religion  at  all."^ 

When  a  modem  Hindu  is  asked  what  are  the 

sacred  books  of  his  religion,  he  generally  answers: 

"  The  Yedas,  the  Sastras  {i.e.  ph  ilosophical  systems), 

and  the  Puranas."  Some  authorities  add  the  Tantras. 

The   modern   form    of   Hinduism    is    exhibited 

^  Miscellaneous  Wriiiiiys  (Macmillan,  18G1),  Vol.  I.,  p.  77. 


34 


The  Hindu  Religion. 


The 
Parftnas 


chiefly  in  the  eighteen  Puranas,  and  an  equal 
number  of  TJpa-puranas  (minor  puranas).^ 

When  we  compare  the  religion  embodied  in  the 
Puranas  with  that  of  Yedic  times,  we  are  startled 
at  the  magnitude  of  the  change.  The  Pantheon 
is  largely  new  ;  old  deities  have  been  superseded ; 
other  deities  have  taken  their  place.  There  has 
been  both  accretion  from  without  and  evolution 
from  within.  The  thirty-three  gods  of  the  Vedas 
have  been  fantastically  raised  to  three  hundred  and 
thirty  millions.  Siva,  Durga,  Rama,  Krishna, 
Kali — unknown  in  ancient  days — are  now  mighty 
divinities ;  Indra  is  almost  entirely  overlooked ;  and 
Yaruna  has  been  degraded  from  his  lofty  throne, 
and  turned  into  a  regent  of  the  waters. 

The  worship  of  the  Linga  (phallus)  has  been 
introduced.  So  has  the  great  dogma  of  Trans- 
migration ;  which  has  stamped  a  deeper  impress  on 
later  Hindu  mind  than  almost  any  other  doctrine. 
Caste  is  fully  established ;  though  in  Yedic  days 
scarcely,  if  at  all,  recognized.  The  dreadful  prac- 
tice of  widow-burning  has  been  brought  in,  and 
this  by  a  most  daring  perversion  of  the  Yedic  texts. 
"Woman,  in  fact,  has  fallen  far  below  the  position 
assigned  her  in  early  days. 

One  of  the  notable  things  in  connection  with  the 


New  deities, 
rites,  and 
customs. 


^  But  the  truth  is  that  every  man  is  accounted  a  good  Hindu 
who  keeps  the  rules  of  caste,  and  pays  due  respect  to  tlie 
Brahmans.  What  he  believes,  or  disbelieves,  is  of  little  or  no 
consequence. 


Tlie  Hindu  Religion.  3»5 


reconstruction  of  Hinduism  is  the  position  it  skives  The 

^  .  Trimurlti, 

to  the  Trimurtti,  or  triad  of  gods —  Brahma,  Yish-  t^ad  of 
nu,  and  Siva.  Something  like  an  anticipation  of 
this  had  been  presented  in  the  later  Yedic  times : 
Fire,  Air,  and  the  Sun  (Agni,  Yayu,  and  Sur}^^) 
being  regarded  by  tho  commentator^  as  summing 
up  the  divine  energies.  But  in  the  Yedas  the 
deities  often  go  in  pairs;  and  little  stress  should 
be  laid  on  the  idea  of  a  Yedic  triad.  That  idea, 
however,  came  prominently  forward  in  later  days. 
The  worship  both  of  Yishnu  and  Siva  may  have 
existed,  from  ancient  times,  as  popular  rites  not 
acknowledged  by  the  Brahmans ;  but  both  of  these 
deities  were  now  fully  recognized.  The  god  Brahma 
was  an  invention  of  the  Brahmans  ;  he  was  no  real 
divinity  of  the  people,  and  has  hardly  ever  been 
actually  worshipped.  It  is  usual  to  designate  Brahma, 
Yishnu,  and  Siva  as  Creator,  Preserver,  and  De- 
stroyer respectively;  but  the  generalization  is  by 
no  means  well  maintained  in  the  Hindu  books. 

The  Piiranas  are  in  general  violently  sectarian ; 
some  being  Yishnuite,  others  Sivite.  It  is  in  con- 
nexion with  Yishnu,  especially,  that  the  idea  of 
incarnation  becomes  prominent.  The  Hindu  term  The 
is  Avatdra,  literally,  descent;  the  deity  is  repre- 
sented as  descending  from  heaven  to  earth,  for  the 
vindication  of  truth  and  righteousness,  or  to  use 
the  words  ascribed  to  Krishna : 

1  Y^aka ;  probably  in  the  5th  century  B.O. 


The  Hindu  Religion. 


For  the  preservation  of  the  good,  and  the  destruction  of  the 

wicked, 
For  the  establishment  of  religion,  I  am  born  from  age  to  age. 

The  The  "  descents  "  of  Yishnu  are  usually  reckoned 

**  descents" 

0/ Vishnu,  ten.  Of  these  by  far  the  most  celebrated  are  those 
of  Rama  and  Krishna.  The  great  importance  at- 
tached to  these  two  deities  has  been  traced  to  the 
influence  of  Buddhism.  That  system  had  exerted 
immense  power  in  consequence  of  the  gentle  and 
attractive  character  ascribed  to  Buddha.  The  older 
gods  were  dim,  distant,  and  often  stern  ;  some 
near,  intelligible,  and  loving  divinity  was  longed 
for.  Buddha  was  a  brother  man,  and  yet  a  quasi- 
deity ;  and  hearts  longing  for  sympathy  and  succour 
were  strongly  attracted  by  such  a  personality. 

The  god  The  character  of  Rama — or  Ramachandra — is 

R&ma. 

possessed  of  some  high  qualities.  The  great 
poem  in  which  it  is  described  at  fullest  length — 
the  Ramayana  of  Yalmiki — seems  to  have  been  an 
alteration,  made  in  the  interests  of  Hinduism,  of 
early  Buddhist  legends ;  and  the  Buddhist  quality 
of  gentleness  has  not  disappeared  in  the  history.^ 
Rama,  however,  is  far  from  a  perfect  character. 
His  wife  Sita  is  possessed  of  much  womanly  grace, 
and  every  wifely  virtue ;  and  the  sorrowful  story 
of  the  warrior-god  and  his  faithful  spouse  has 
appealed  to  deep  sympathies  in  the  human  breast. 

>  Weber  thinks  that  Christian  elements  may  have  been  in« 
troduced,  in  course  of  time,  into  the  representation. 


The  Hindu  Religion, 


The  worship  of  Rama  has  seldom,  if  ever,  degene- 
rated into  lasciviousness.  In  spite,  however,  of 
the  charm  thrown  around  the  life  of  Rama  and 
Sita  by  the  genius  of  Yalmiki  and  Tulsidas,^  it  is 
Krishna,  not  Rama,  that  has  attained  the  greatest 
popularity  among  the  "  descents  "  of  Vishnu. 

Yery  different  morally  from  that  of  Rama  is  Krishna,  ^^ 
the  character  of  Krishna,     While  Rama  is  hut  a 
partial  manifestation  of  divinity,  Krishna  is  a  full 
maliifestation ; — yet  what  a  manifestation  !     He  is 
represented  as  full  of  naughty  tricks  in  his  youth, 
although  exercising  the  highest  powers  of  deity; 
and,  when  he  grows  up,  his  conduct  is  grossly  im- 
moral and  disgusting.    It  is  most  startling  to  think 
that  this  being  is  by  grave  writers — like  the  authors 
of  the  Bhagavad  Gita  and  the  Bhagavata  Purana 
— made  the  highest  of  the  gods,  or  indeed  the  only 
real  God.     Stranger  still,  if  possible,  is  the  pro-  ms  early 
bability  that  the  early  life  of  Krishna — in  part,  at  travesty  of 
least — is  a  dreadful  travesty  of  the  early  life  of  aS^jJ'ij,g  t<, 
Christ,  as  given  in  the  apocryphal  Gospels,  espe-  oftS'^^^^ 
cially  the  Gospel  of  the  Infancy.     The  falling  off      *"*'^' 
in  the  apocryphal  Gospels,  when  compared  with 
the  canonical,  is  truly  sad ;  but  the  falling  off  even 
from  the  apocryphal  ones,  in  the  Hindu  books,  is 
altogether  sickening.^ 

^  His  Ramayan  was  written  in  Hindi  Terse  in  the  sixteen tn 
century. 

*  When  Jh&nsl  was  captured  in  the  times  of  the  great  mutiny, 


88 


The  Hindu  Religion. 


Doctrine  of 
hhakti 

introduced. 


A  very  striking  characteristic  of  modern  Hinduism 
is  wliat  is  termed  hhakti,  or  devotion.  There  are 
three  great  ways  of  attaining  to  salvation :  karma 
mdrga,  or  the  way  of  ceremonial  works ;  jndna 
mdrga,  or  the  way  of  knowledge ;  and  hhakti  mdrga, 
or  the  way  of  devotion. 

The  notion  of  trust  in  the  gods  was  familiar  to 
the  mind  of  India  from  Vedic  days,  but  the  deity 
was  indistinct  and  unsympathetic,  and  there  could 
hardly  be  love  and  attachment  to  him.  But  there 
now  arose  the  doctrine  of  hhakti  (devotion),  which 
resolved  religion  into  emotion.  It  came  into  the 
Hindu  system  rather  abruptly  ;  and  many  learned 
men  have  traced  its  origin  to  the  influence  of 
Christianity.  This  is  quite  possible ;  but  perhaps 
the  fact  is  hardly  proved.  Contact  with  Chris- 
tianity,  however,   probably  accelerated  a  process 

At  all  events  the 


Influence  of   which  had  previously  begun. 

system  of  hhakti  has  had,  and  still  has,  great 
sway  in  India — particularly  in  Bengal,  among  the 
followers  of  Chaitanya,  and  the  large  body  of  people 
in  Western  India  who  style  themselves  Vaishnavas 


English  officers  were  disgusted  to  see  the  walls  of  the  queen's 
palace  covered  with  what  they  described  as  "grossly  obscene" 
pictures.  There  is  little  or  no  doubt  that  these  were  simply 
representations  of  the  acts  of  Krishna.  Therefore  to  the 
Hindu  queen  they  were  religious  pictures.  When  questioned 
about  such  things  the  Brahman s  reply  that  deeds  which  would 
be  wicked  in  men,  were  quite  right  in  Krishna ;  who,  being  God, 
could  do  whatever  he  pleased. 


The  Hindu  Religion. 


or  Bhaktas  (devotees).  The  popular  poetry  of 
Maharashtra,  as  exemplified  in  such  poets  as  Tukd- 
rama,  is  an  impassioned  inculcation  of  devotion  to 
Yithoha  of  Pandharpur,  who  is  a  manifestation 
of  Krishna.     Into  the  hhakti  system  of  Western  Mixed  with 

Buddhist 

India  Buddhist  elements  have  entered ;  and  the  elements, 
school  of  devotees  is  often  denominated  Bauddha- 
Vaishnava.  Along  vrith  extravagant  idolatry  it 
inculcates  generally— at  least  in  the  Marath^  coun-1 
try — a  pure  morality ; — and  the  latter  it  apparently/ 
owes  to  Buddhism.  Yet  there  are  many  sad  lapsei^ 
from  purity.  Almost  of  necessity  the  worship  of 
Krishna  led  to  corruption.  The  hymns  became 
erotic  ;  and  movements  hopeful  at  their  commence- 
ment— like  that  of  Chaitanya  of  Bengal,  in  the 
16th  century — soon  grievously  fell  o£P  in  character. 
The  attempt  to  make  religion  consist  of  emotion 
without  thought — of  hhakti  without  jndna — had 
disastrous  issues.    Coincident  with  the  development  Exaltation 

of  the  guru 

of  hhakti  was  the  exaltation  of  the  guru,  or  religious 
teacher,  which  soon  amounted  to  deification ;—  a 
change   traceable   from   about   the   12th   century 

A.D. 

When  pressed  on  the  subject  of  Krishna's  evil  Expiana^ 
deeds,  many  are  anxious  to  explain  them  as  alle-  ^"Jj^'j^ 
gorical  representations  of  the  union  between  the 
divinity  and  true  worshippers  ;  but  some  interpret 
them  in  the  most  literal  way  possible.     This   is 
done    especially    by    the    followers   of    Yallabha 


40  The  Hindu  Religion. 

Acharya.^  These  men  attained  a  most  unenviable 
notoriety  about  twenty  years  ago,  when  a  case  was 
tried  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  Bombay,  which 
revealed  the  practice  of  the  most  shameful  licen- 
tiousness by  the  religious  teachers  and  their  female 
followers — and  this  as  a  part  of  worship  !  The 
disgust  excited  was  so  great  and  general  that  it 
was  believed  the  influence  of  the  sect  was  at  an 
end ;  but  this  hope  unhappily  has  not  been  realized. 
Reforms  Beformers  have   arisen  from  time   to   time   in 

attempted. 

India ;  men  who  saw  the  deplorable  corruption  of 
religion,  and  strove  to  restore  it  to  what  they  con- 

Kabir.  sidcrcd  purity.     Next  to  Buddha  we  may  men- 

tion Kabir;  to  whom  are  ascribed  many  verses 
still  popular.  Probably  the  doctrine  of  the  unity 
of  God,  as  maintained  by  the  Mohammad ans,  had 
impressed  him.  He  opposed  idolatry,  caste,  and 
Brahmanical  assumption.  Yet  his  monotheism 
was  a  kind  of  pantheism.     His  date  may  be  the  be- 

Kinak.  ginning  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Nanak  followed, 
and  founded  the  religion  of  the  Sikhs.  His  sacred 
book,  the  Granthy  is  mainly  pantheistic :  it  dwells 
earnestly  on  devotion — especially  devotion  to  the 
guru.  The  Sikhs  now  seem  slowly  relapsing  into 
idolatry.  In  truth,  the  history  of  all  attempts  at 
reformation  in  India  has  been  most  discouraging. 
Sect  after  sect  has  successively  risen  to  some  eleva- 
tion   above    the    prevalent    idolatry;    and    then 

^  Born  probably  in  1649. 


The  Hindvj  Religion,  41 

gradually,  as  by  some  irresistible  gravitation,  it 
has  sunk  back  into  the  mare  magnum  of  Hinduism. 
If  we  regard  experience,  purification  from  within  Failure  of 

p        .      .  ,  .   .  all  reforms. 

is  hopeless ;  the  struggle  for  it  is  only  a  repetition 
of  the  toil  of  Sisyphus,  and  always  with  the  same 
sad  issue.  Deliverance  must  come  from  without — 
from  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ. 

We  mentioned  the  Tantras  as  exerting  great  in-  influence  of 

°    °       .  the  Tantras 

fluence  in  later  days.^  In  these  the  worship  of 
Siva,  and  still  more,  that  of  his  wife  is  predominant. 
The  deity  is  now  supposed  to  possess  a  double 
nature, — one  quiescent,  one  active ;  the  latter  being 
regarded  as  the  sakti  or  energy  of  the  god,  otherwise 
called  his  wife.  The  origin  of  the  system  is  not 
fully  explained :  nor  is  the  date  of  its  rise  ascer- 
tained. The  worship  assumes  wild,  extravagant  worship  of 
forms, — generally  obscene,  sometimes  bloody.  It 
is  divided  into  two  schools — that  of  the  right  hand 
and  that  of  the  left.  The  former  runs  into 
mysticism  and  magic  in  complicated  observances ; 
and  the  latter  into  the  most  appalling  licentiousness. 
The  worship  of  the  Sakti,  or  female  principle,  has 
become  a  most  elaborate  system.  The  beings 
adored  are  "  the  most  outrageous  divinities  which 
man  has  ever  conceived."  ^     Sorcery  began  early 

^  R4j^N^r^yanBasu  (Bose),  in  enumerating  the  sacred  books 
of  Hinduism,  excluded  the  philosophical  systems,  and  included 
the  Tantras.  He  was  and,  we  believe,  is  a  leading  man  in  the 
Adi  Brahma  Sam^j. 

2  Barth,  as  above,  p.  202. 


42  The  Hindu  Religion. 


ittML 


in  India  ;  but  it  is  in  connection  with  this  system 
that  it  attains  to  full  development.  Human  sacri- 
fices are  a  normal  part  of  the  worship,  when  fuPy 
performed.  We  cannot  go  farther  into  detail.  It 
is  profoundly  saddening  to  think  that  such  abomi- 
nations are  committed;  it  is  still  more  saddening 
to  think  that  they  are  performed  as  a  part  of 
divine  worship.  Conscience,  however,  is  so  far 
alive  that  these  detestable  rites  are  practised  only 
in  secret ;  and  few,  if  any,  are  willing  to  confesp 
that  they  have  been  initiated  as  worshippers. 

We  have  not  yet  said  much  about  the  ritual  of 
modern  days.  It  is  exceedingly  complicated.  In 
the  case  of  the  god  Siva  the  rites  are  as  follows, 
when  performed  by  a  priest  in  the  temple  : — 

Worship  of          I'he  Brahmau  first  bathes,  then  enters  the  temple,  and  bows 
BlTa.  to  the  god.     He   anoints   the   image   with  clarified   butter  or 

boiled  oil ;  pours  pure  water  over  it ;  and  then  wipes  it  dry. 
He  grinds  some  white  powder,  mixing  it  with  water ;  dips  the 
ends  of  his  three  fore  fingers  in  it,  and  draws  them  across 
the  image.  He  sits  down  ;  meditates  ;  places  rice  and  durwa 
grass  on  the  image, — places  a  flower  on  his  own  head,  and  then 
on  the  top  of  the  image  ;  then  another  flower  on  the  image,  and 
another,  and  another,  — accompanying  each  act  with  the  recita- 
■  tion  of  sacred  spells  ;  places  white  powder,  flowers,  bilva  leaves, 
incense,  meat-offei-iugs,  rice,  plantains,  and  a  lamp  before  the 
image  ;  repeat,3  the  name  of  Siva,  with  praises,  then  prostrates 
himself  before  the  image.  In  the  evening  he  returns,  washes 
his  feet,  prostrates  himself  before  the  door,  opens  the  door, 
places  a  lamp  within,  offers  milk,  sweetmeats,  and  fruits  to  the 
image,  prostrates  himself  before  it,  locks  the  door  and  departs. 

Very  similar  is  the  worship  paid  to  Yishnu : — 
The  priest  bathes,  and  then  awakes  the  sleeping  god  by  blowing 


The  Hindu  Religion,  43 

shell  and  ringing  a  bell.     More  abundant  offerings  are  made    Worship  of 


than  to  Siva.  About  noon,  fruits,  roots,  soaked  peas,  sweet- 
meats, etc.,  are  presented.  Then  later,  boiled  rice,  fried  herbs, 
and  spices  ;  but  no  flesh,  fish,  nor  fowl.  After  dinner,  betel 
nut.  The  god  is  then  left  to  sleep  ;  and  the  temple  is  shut  up 
for  some  hours.  Towards  evening  curds,  butter,  sweetmoats, 
fruits,  are  presented.  At  sunset  a  lamp  is  brought,  and  Iresh 
oflferings  made.  Lights  are  waved  before  the  image  ;  a  small 
bell  is  rung :  water  is  presented  for  washing  the  mouth,  face, 
and  feet, — with  a  towel  to  dry  them.  In  a  few  minutes  the 
offerings  and  the  lamp  are  removed  :  and  tlie  g<xl  is  left  to 
sleep  in  the  dark. 

The  prescribed  worship  is  not  always  fully  per- 
formed. Still,  sixteen  things  are  essential ;  of 
which  the  following  are  the  most  important : — 

*•  Ist.  Preparing  a  seat  for  the  god  ;  invoking  his  presence; 
bathing  the  image  ;  clothing  it ;  putting  the  string  round  it ; 
offering  perfumes  ;  flowers  ;  incense  ;  lamps  ;  offerings  of  fruits 
and  prepared  eatables  :  betel  nut ;  prayers  ;  circumambulation. 
An  ordinary  worshipper  presents  some  of  the  offerings,  mutters 
a  short  prayer  or  two,  when  circumambulating  the  image  ;  the 
rest  being  done  by  the  priest.* 

We  give  one  additional  specimen  of  the  ritual  : 

"  As  an  atonement  for  unwarily  eating  or  drinking  what  is  for- 
oidden,  eight  hundred  repetitions  of  the  Gayatri  prayer  should 
be  preceded  by  three  suppressions  of  the  breath,  water  being 
touched  during  the  recital  of  the  following  text :  '  The  bull 
roars ;  he  has  four  horns,  three  feet,  two  heads,  seven  hands  ; 
and  is  bound  by  a  three-fold  cord  ;  he  is  the  mighty,  resplendent 
being,  and  pervades  mortal  men." " 

The  bull  is  understood  to  be  justice  personified. 
All  Brahmanical  ceremonies  exhibit,  we  may  say, 
ritualism  and  symboHsm  run  mad. 

*  So  writes  Vans  Kennedy,  a  good  authority.  The  rite« 
however,  vary  with  varying  places. 

'  Asiatic  Researches,  V.  p.  356. 


Vislmu. 


44  The  Hindu  Religion. 

Caste.  The  most  prominent  and  characteristic  institution 

of  Hinduism  is  Caste.  The  power  of  caste  is  as 
irrational  as  it  is  unbounded ;  and  it  works  almost 
unmixed  evil.  The  touch — even  the  shadow — of  a 
low  caste  man  pollutes.  The  Scriptural  precept, 
"  Honour  all  men,"  appears  to  a  true  Hindu  infinitely 
absurd.  He  honours  and  worships  a  cow ;  but  he 
shrinks  with  horror  from  the  touch  of  a  Mhar  or 
Mang.  Even  Brahmans,  if  they  come  from  differ- 
ent provinces,  will  not  eat  together.  Thus  Hinduism 
separates  man  from  man ;  it  goes  on  dividing  and 
still  dividing  ;  and  new  fences  to  guard  imaginary 
purity   are  continually  added. 

lYeatment         ^hc  wholc  treatment  of  women  has  gradually 

of  women.  °  •' 

become  most  tyrannical  and  unjust.  In  very 
ancient  days  they  were  held  in  considerable 
respect ;  but,  for  ages  past,  the  idea  of  woman 
has  been  steadily  sinking  lower  and  lower,  and 
her  rights  have  been  more  and  more  assailed. 
The  burning  of  widows  has  been  prohibited  by 
enactment ;  ^  but  the  awful  rite  would  in  many 
places  be  restored  were  it  not  for  the  strong  hand  of 
the  British  government.  The  practice  of  marrying 
women  in  childhood  is  still  generally — all  but 
universally — prevalent ;  and  when,  owing  to  the 
zeal  of  reformers,  a  case  of  widow-marriage  occurs, 
its  rarity  makes  it  be  hailed  as  a  signal  triumph 
Multitudes   of  the   so-called  widows  were   never 

^  In  British  territoiy  since  1829. 


The  Hindu  Relioio'^i,'-^'^  45 


really  wives,  their  husbands  (so-called)  having 
died  in  childhood.  Widows  are  subjected  to  widows, 
treatment  which  they  deem  worse  than  death ; 
and  yet  their  number,  it  is  calculated,  amounts  to 
about  twenty- one  millions  !  More  cruel  and  de- 
moralizing customs  than  exist  in  India  in  regard 
to  women  can  hardly  be  found  among  the  lowest 
barbarians.  We  are  glad  to  escape  from  dwelling 
on  points  so  exceedingly  painful. 

IV. 

Contrast  with  Christianity. 

The  immense  difference  between  the  Hindu  and 
Christian  religions  has  doubtless  already  frequently 
suggested  itself  to  the  reader.  It  -will  not  be 
necessary,  therefore,  to  dwell  on  this  topic  at  very 
great  length.  The  contrast  forces  itself  upon  us 
at  every  point. 

When,  about  fifteen  centuries  B.C.,  the  Aryas  Thelryas 

and 

were  victoriously  occupying  the  Panjab,  and  the  J?^^®^^*®^^^ 
Israelites  were  escaping  from  the  "iron  furnace"  aJou/"*"'^ 
of  Egypt,  if  one  had  been  asked  which  of  the  two  ^^^  "**'' 
races  would  probably  rise  to  the  highest  conception 
of  the  divine,  and  contribute  most  largely  to  the 
well-being  of  mankind,  the  answer,  quite  possibly, 
might   have   been,   the   Aryas.      Egypt,  with   its 
brutish  idolatries,  had  corrupted  the  faith  of  the 
Israelites,  and  slavery  had  crushed  all  manliness 


46  The  Hindu  Religion. 

Contrast  of    out  of  them.     Yet  how  wonderful  has  been  their 

their  after 

history.  after  history  !  Among  ancient  religions  that  of 
the  Old  Testament  stands  absolutely  unique  ;  and 
in  the  fulness  of  time  it  blossomed  into  Christianity. 
How  is  the  marvel  to  be  explained  ?  Wo  cannot 
account  for  it  except  by  ascribing  it  to  a  divine 
election  of  the  Israelites,  and  a  providential  training 
intended  to  fit  them  to  become  the  teachers  of  the 
world.     "  Salvation  is  of  the  Jews." 

The  contrast  between  the  teachings  of  the  Bible 
and  those  of  the  Hindu  books  is  simply  infinite. 
Hindu  The  conception  of   a  purely  immaterial  Being, 

compared  infinite,  etomal,  and  unchangeable,  which  is  that 
Christian.  q£  j^q  Bible  regarding  God,  is  entirely  foreign  to 
the  Hindu  books.  Their  doctrine  is  various;  but, 
in  every  case,  erroneous.  It  is  absolute  pantheism; 
or  polytheism  ;  or  an  inconsistent  blending  of  poly- 
theism and  pantheism  ;  or  atheism. 

Equally  striking  is  the  contrast  between  Chris- 
tianity and  Hinduism  as  to  the  attributes  of  God. 
According  to  the  former,  He  is  omnipreseni; 
omnipotent ;  possessed  of  every  excellence — ^holi- 
ness, justice,  goodness,  truth.  According  to  the 
chief  Hindu  philosophy,  the  Supreme  is  devoid  of 
attributes — devoid  of  consciousness.  According  to 
the  popular  conception,  when  the  Supreme  becomes 
conscious,  He  is  developed  into  three  gods,  who 
possess  respectively  the  qualities  of  truth,  passion, 
and  darkness. 


The  Hindu  Religion.  47 

"  God  is  a  Spirit.'*     '*Go(l  is  lierht.*'     "God  is  conceptiona 

^  .  .  of  God. 

love."  These  sublime  declarations  have  no  counter- 
parts in  Hinduism. 

He  is  "  the  Father  of  spirits,"  according  to  the 
Bible.  According  to  Hinduism,  the  individual 
spirit  is  a  portion  of  the  divine.  Even  the  common 
people  firmly  believe  this. 

Every  thing  is  referred  by  Hinduism  to  God  as 
its  immediate  cause.  A  Christian  is  continually 
shocked  by  the  Hindus  ascribing  all  sin  to  God  as 
its  source. 

The  adoration  of  God  as  a  Being  possessed  of  The  object 

of  worsliij*. 

every  glorious  excellence  is  earnestly  commanded 
in  the  Bible.  **  Thou  shalt  worship  the  Lord  thy 
God ;  and  Him  only  shalt  thou  serve."  In  India 
the  Supreme  is  never  worshipped ;  but  any  ono 
of  the  multitudinous  gods  may  be  so  ;  and,  in 
fact,  every  thing  can  be  worshipped  except  God. 
A  maxim  in  the  mouth  of  every  Hindu  is  the 
following :  "  Where  there  is  faith,  there  is  God." 
Believe  the  stone  a  god,  and  it  is  so. 

Every  sin  being  traced  to  God  as  its  ultimate  The 
source,  the  sense  of  personal  guilt  is  very  slight 
among  Hindus.  Where  it  exists  it  is  generally 
connected  with  ceremonial  defilement  or  the  breach 
of  some  one  of  the  innumerabl®  and  meaningless 
rites  of  the  religion.  How  unlike  in  all  this  is 
the  Gospel !  The  Bible  dwells  with  *all  possible 
earnestness  on  the  evil  of  sin — not  of  ceremonial 


Bens* 
of  siu. 


48 


The  Hindu  Religion. 


Atonement. 


but  moral  defilement — the  transgression  of  the 
divine  law,  the  eternal  law  of  right. 

How  important  a  place  in  the  Christian  system 
is  held  by  Atonement — the  great  atonement  made 
by  Christ — it  is  unnecessary  to  say.  Nor  need  we 
enlarge  on  the  extraordinary  power  it  exercises 
over  the  human  heart, — at  once  filling  it  with  con- 
trition, hatred  of  sin,  and  overflowing  joy.  "We 
turn  to  Hinduism  ;  alas  !  we  find  that  the  earnest 
questionings  and  higher  views  of  the  ancient 
thinkers  have  in  a  great  degree  been  ignored  in 
later  times.  Sacrifice  in  its  original  form  has 
passed  away.  Atonement  is  often  spoken  of  ; 
but  it  is  only  some  paltry  device  or  other,  such  as 
eating  the  five  products  of  the  cow,  going  on  pil- 
grimage to  some  sacred  shrine,  paying  money  to 
the  priests,  or  it  may  be  some  bodily  penance,  that 
is  had  recourse  to.  Such  expedients  leave  no  im- 
pression on  the  heart  as  to  the  true  nature,  and 
essential  evil,  of  sin. 

Salvation,  in  the  Christian  system,  denotes  de- 
liverance not  only  from  the  punishment  of  sin,  but 
from  its  power, — implying  a  renovation  of  the 
moral  nature.  The  entire  man  is  to  be  rectified  in 
heart,  speech,  and  behaviour.  The  perfection  of 
the  individual,  and  through  that  the  perfection  of 
society,  are  the  objects  aimed  at;  and  the  con- 
summation* desired  is  the  doing  of  the  will  of  God 
on  earth,  as  it  is  done  in  heaven.     Now  of  all  this 


Salvation. 


TJie  Hindu  Religion.  49 

- — surely  a  magnificent  ideal — we  find  in  Hinduism 
no  trace  whatever. 

Christianity  is  emphatically  a  religion  of  hope ;  views  of 
Hinduism  may  he  designated  a  religion  of  despair. 
The  trials  of  life  are  many  and  great ;  Christianity 
bids  us  regard  them  as  discipline  from  a  Father's 
hand,  and  tells  us  that  affliction  rightly  borne  yields 
*  the  peaceable  fruits  of  righteousness."  To  death 
the  Chiistian  looks  forward  without  fear  ;  to  him  it 
is  a  quiet  sleep  ;  and  the  resurrection  draws  nigh. 
Then  comes  the  beatific  vision  of  God.  Glorified 
in  soul  and  body,  the  companion  of  angels  and 
saints,  strong  in  immortal  youth,  he  will  serve 
without  let  or  hindrance  the  God  and  Saviour 
whom  he  loves.  To  the  Hindu  the  trials  of  life 
are  penal,  not  remedial.  At  death  his  soul  passes 
into  another  body.  Rightly,  every  human  soul 
animates  in  succession  eighty-four  lacs  (8,400,000) 
of  bodies — the  body  of  a  human  being,  or  a  beast, 
or  a  bird,  or  a  fish,  or  a  plant,  or  a  stone,  according 
to  desert.  This  weary,  all  but  endless,  round  of 
births,  fills  the  mind  of  a  Hindu  with  the  greatest 
horror.  At  last  the  soul  is  lost  in  God,  as  a  drop 
mingles  with  the  ocean  ;  individual  existence  and 
consciousness  then  cease.  The  thought  is  pro- 
foundly sorrowful  that  this  is  the  cheerless  faith  of 
countless  multitudes.  No  wonder,  though  the  great  ^he  great 
tenet  of  Hinduism  is  this — Existence  is  misery.  mndufsm. 

So  much  for  the  future  of  the  individual.     Re- 
E 


50  The  Hindu  Religion. 

The  future     ffardmof  the  future  of  the  race,  Hinduism  speaks  in 

of  the  race.      on  »  r 

equally  cheerless  terms.     Its  golden  age  lies  in  the 

immeasurably  distant  past ;    and   the  further  we 

recede  from  it,  the  deeper  must  we  plunge  into  sin 

and  wretchedness.     True,  ages  and  ages  hence,  the 

"Age  of  Truth"  returns;  but  it  returns  only  to  pass 

away  again,  and  torment  us  with  the  memory  of  lost 

purity  and  joy.     The  experience  of  the  universe  is 

thus  an  eternal  renovation  of  hope  and  disappoint- 

bSlS*^^^^  ment.     In  the  struggle  between  good  and  evil  there 

good  and       -g  no  final  triumph  for  the  good.    We  tread  a  fated, 

eternal  round  from  which  there  is  no  escape  ;  and 

alike  the  hero  fights,  and  the  martyr  dies,  in  vain. 

It  is   remarkable    that  acute   intellectual   men 

— as   many   of    the   Hindu   poets   were  —  should 

never  have   grappled   with    the  problem   of  the 

Divine  government  of  the  world. 

Tne  future         Equally  notable  is  the  unconcern  of  the  Veda  as 

of  the  ^  '' 

Arvaii  race,  to  the  Welfare  and  the  future  of  even  the  Aryan 
race.  But  how  sublime  is  the  promise  given  to 
Abraham,  that  in  him  and  his  seed  all  nations  of 
the  earth  should  be  blessed  !  Renan  has  pointed 
with  admiration  to  the  confidence  entertained  at 
all  times  by  the  Jew  in  a  brilliant  and  happy 
future  for  mankind.  The  ancient  Hindu  cared  not 
about  the  future  of  his  neighbours  ;  and  doubtless 
even  the  expression  "  human  race "  would  have 
been  unintelligible  to  him.  —  Nor  is  there  any 
pathos  in  the  Veda  ;   there  is  no  deep  sense  of 


The  Hindu  Religion.  51 

the  sorrows  of  life. — Max  Muller  has  affixed  the 
epithet  "  transcendent "  to  the  Hindu  mind.  Its 
hent  was  much  more  towards  the  metaphysical, 
the  mystical,  the  incomprehensihle,  than  towards 
the  moral  and  the  practical.  Hence  endless 
subtleties,  more  meaningless  and  unprofitable 
than  ever  occupied  the  mind  of  Talmudist  or 
schoolman  of  the  middle  ages. 

But  finally,  on  this  part  of   the   subiect, — the  The  words 

.  .    .  ...  o'  St.  Paul 

development  of  Indian  religion  supplies  a  striking  illustrated 
comment  on  the  words  of  St.  Paul :  iJnduism. 

'  •  The  invisible  things  of  God  are  clearly  seen,  being  understood 
from  the  things  that  are  made.  But  when  they  knew  God,  they 
glorified  Him  not  as  God,  neither  were  thankful,  but  became 
vain  in  their  imaginations,  and  their  foolish  heart  was  darkened." 

Hinduism   is  deplorably  deficient  in  power  to   Moral 

^  "^  ^      ^  power, 

raise  and  purify  the  human  soul,  from  having  no 
high  example  of  moral  excellence.  Its  renowned 
sages  were  noted  for  irritability  and  selfishness — 
great  men  at  cursing  ; — and  the  gods  for  the  most 
part  were  worse.  Need  we  say  how  gloriously  rich 
the  Gospel  is  in  having,  in  the  character  of  Christ, 
the  realized  ideal  of  every  possible  excellence  ? 

Summa  religionis  est  imitari  quern  colis  :  "  It  is  EtMcai 
the  sum  of  religion  to  imitate  the  being  worshipped."^  mnduism 
Or,  as  the  Hindus  express  it :  "As  is  the  deity, 
such  is  the  devotee."     Worship  the  God  revealed 
in  the  Bible,   and  you  become  godlike ;  the  soul 

*  Cioero. 


52 


The  Hindu  Religion. 


The  peopl« 
better  than 
their 
religion. 


strives,  with  Divine  aid,  to  "  purify  itself  even  as 
God  is  pure,"  But  apply  the  principle  to  Hindu- 
ism. Alas!  the  Pantheon  is  almost  a  pande- 
monium. Krishna,  who  in  these  days  is  the  chief 
deity  to  at  least  a  hundred  millions  of  people, 
does  not  possess  one  elevated  attribute.  If,  in 
these  circumstances,  society  does  not  become  a 
moral  pesthouse,  it  is  only  because  the  people  con- 
tinue better  than  their  religion.  The  human  heart, 
though  fallen,  is  not  fiendish.  It  has  still  its 
purer  instincts ;  and,  when  the  legends  about 
abominable  gods  and  goddesses  are  falling  like 
mildew,  these  are  still  to  some  extent  kept  alive  by 
the  sweet  influences  of  earth  and  sky,  and  by  the 
charities  of  family  life.  When  the  heart  of  woman 
is  about  to  be  swept  into  the  abyss,  her  infant's 
smile  restores  her  to  her  better  self.  Thus  family 
life  does  not  go  to  ruin  ;  and,  so  long  as  that 
anchor  holds,  society  will  not  drift  on  the  rocks 
that  stand  so  perilously  near.  Still,  the  state  of 
things  is  deplorably  distressing. 
The  The   doctrine   of  the  Incarnation  is  of  funda 

doctrine  of 

Incarnation,  mental  importance  in  Christianity.  It  seems  al- 
most profanation  to  compare  it  with  the  Hindu 
teaching  regarding  the  Avataras,  or  Descents  of 
Vishnu.  It  ib  difficult  to  extract  any  meaning  out 
of  the  three  first  manifestations — when  the  god 
became  in  succession  a  fish,  a  boar,  and  a  tortoise. 
Of  the  great  "  descents "  in  R^ma  and  Krishna, 


The  Hindu  Religion.  fil^ 

we  have  already  spoken.  The  ninth  Avatara  was 
that  of  Buddha, — in  which  the  deity  descended  for 
the  purpose  of  deceiving  men,  making  them  deny 
the  gods,  and  leading  them  to  destruction.  So 
blasphemous  an  idea  may  seem  hardly  possible 
even  for  the  bewildered  mind  of  India  ;  hut  this  is 
doubtless  the  Brahmanical  explanation  of  the  rise 
and  progress  of  Buddhism ;  it  was  fatal  error,  but 
inculcated  by  a  divine  being!  Even  the  sick- 
ening tales  of  Krishna  and  his  amours  are  less 
shocking  than  this.  When  we  turn  from  such 
representations  of  divinity  to  "the  Word  made 
flesh,"  we  seem  to  have  escaped  from  the  pestilential 
air  of  a  chamel  house  to  the  sweet  pure  breath  of 
heaven. 


V. 

Hinduism  in  contact  with  Christianity. 

We  have  used  the  word  reformer  in  this  Tract.  Attempted 

reforms. 

We  formerly  noted  that,  in  India,  there  have  arisen 
from  time  to  time,  men  who  saw  and  sorrowed 
over  the  erroneous  doctrines  and  degrading  rites 
of  the  popular  system. 

In  quite  recent  times  they  have  had  successors. 
Some  account  of  their  work  may  form  a  fitting 
conclusion  to  our  discussion. 

With  the  large  influx  into  India  of  Christian 
ideas  it  was  to  be  expected  that  some  impression 


»54  The  Hindu  Religion. 

would  be  made  on  Hinduism.     We  do  not  refer 

to  conversion — the  full  acceptance  of  the  Christian 

Advance  of     faith.     Christianity  has  advanced  and  is  advancing 

Christianity     .  .  n       ^i  •  ^^  -i 

in  India.  m  India  more  rapidly  than  is  generally  supposed  ; 
but  far  beyond  the  circle  of  those  who  '^  come  out 
and  are  separate,"  its  mighty  power  is  telling  on 
Hinduism.  The  great  fundamental  truths  of  the 
Gospel,  when  once  uttered  and  understood,  can 
hardly  be  forgotten.  Disliked  and  denied  they  may 
be  ;  but  forgotten  ?  No.  Thus,  they  gradually 
win  their  way  ;  and  multitudes  who  have  no  thought 
of  becoming  Christians  are  ready  to  admit  that 
they  are  beautiful  and  true, — for  belief  and  practice 
are  often  widely  separated  in  Hindu  minds. 

The  Brfthma       But  it  was  to  bc  expcctcd  that  the  new  ideas 

Bamij.  ^  ,  ,        •         ^ 

pouring  into  India — and  among  these  we  include 
not  only  distinctively  Christian  ideas,  but  Western 
thought  generally — would  manifest  their  presence 
and  activity  in  concrete  forms — in  attempted  re- 
constructions of  religion.  The  most  remarkable 
example  of  such  a  reconstruction  is  exhibited  in 
the  Brahmo  Somaj  (more  correctly  Brahma  Sam^j) 
— which  may  be  rendered  the  "  Church  of  God." 

It  is  traceable  to  the  efforts  of  a  truly  dis- 
tinguished man,  Rammohun  Roy.  He  was  a 
person  of  studious  habits,  intelligent,  acute;  and 
deeply  in  earnest  on  the  subject  of  religion.  He 
studied  not  only  Hinduism  in  its  various  forms, 
but  Buddhism,  Mohammadanism,  and  Christianity. 


Rammohun 
Koy. 


Tlce  Hindu  Religion.  55 

Ho  was  naturally  an  eclectic — gathering  truth  Effect  of 
from  all  quarters  where  he  thought  he  could  find  ^^^  ^^^™- 
it.  A  specially  deep  impression  was  made  on  his 
mind  by  Christianity  ;  and  in  1820  he  published  a 
book  with  the  remarkable  title,  "  The  precepts  of 
Jesus  the  guide  to  peace  and  happiness."  Yery 
frequently  he  gave  expression  to  the  sentiment  that 
the  teachings  of  Christ  were  the  truest  and  deepest 
that  he  knew.  Still,  he  did  not  believe  in  Christ's 
divinity. 

In  January,  1830,  a  place  of  worship  was  opened 
by  Rammohun  Roy  and  his  friends.  It  was 
intended  for  the  worship  of  one  God,  without 
idolatrous  rites  of  any  kind.  This  was*  un- 
doubtedly a  very  important  event ;  and  great  was 
the  interest  aroused  in  connection  with  it.  Ram- 
mohun  Roy,  however,  visited  Britain  in  1831,  and 
died  at  Bristol  in  1833 ;  and  the  cause  for  which 
he  had  so  earnestly  laboured  in  India  languished 
for  a  time.     But  in  the  year  1841,  Debendernath  oebender- 

nath  Tagore. 

Tagore,  a  man  of  character  and  wealth,  joined  the 
Brahmo  Somaj,  and  gave  a  kind  of  constitution  to 
it.  It  was  fully  organized  by  1844.  No  definite 
declaration,  however,  had  been  made  as  to  the 
authority  of  the  Vedas ;  but,  after  a  lengthened 
period  of  inquiry  and  discussion,  a  majority  of 
the  Somaj  rejected  the  doctrine  of  their  in- 
fallibility by  1850.  ♦*  The  rock  of  intuition  "  now 
began  to  be   spoken   of ;    man's   reason  was  his 


56 


The  Hindu  Religion. 


Keehub 
Ch under 
Sen. 


sufficient  guide.  Still,  great  respect  was  cherislied 
for  the  ancient  belief  and  customs  of  the  land- 
But  in  1858  a  new  champion  appeared  on  the 
scene,  in  the  well-known  Keshub  Chunder  Sen. 
Ardent,  impetuous,  ambitious  —  full  of  ideas 
derived  from  Christian  sources  ^ — he  could  not 
brook  the  slow  movements  of  the  Somaj  in  the 
path'  of  reform.  Important  changes,  both  religious 
and  social,  were  pressed  by  him ;  and  the  more 
conservative  Debendernath  somewhat  reluctantly 
consented  to  their  introduction.  Matters  were, 
however,  brought  to  a  crisis  by  the  marriage  of 
two  persons  of  different  castes  in  1864.  In 
February,  1865,  the  progressive  party  formally 
severed  their  connection  with  the  original  Somaj ; 
and  in  August,  1869,  they  opened  a  new  place  of 
worship  of  their  own.  Since  this  time  the  original 
or  Adi  Somaj  has  been  little  heard  of ;  and  its 
movement — if  it  has  moved  at  all — has  been  re- 
trogressive. The  new  Somaj — the  Brahmo  Somaj 
of  India,  as  it  called  itself, — under  the  guidance  of 
Mr.  Sen  became  very  active.  A  missionary  institute 
was  set  up,  and  preachers  were  sent  over  a  great 
part  of  India.  Much  was  accomplished  on  behalf 
of  women ;  and  in  1872  a  Marriage  Act  for 
members  of  the  Somaj  was  passed  by  the  Indian 


Formation 
of  a  new 
Sam&j. 


*  We  learned  from  his  own  lips  that  among  the  books  which 
most  deeply  impressed  him  were  the  Bible  and  the  writings  of 
Dr.  Chalmers. 


Tlie  Hindu  Religion.  57 

legislature,  which  legalized  union  between  people 
of  different  castes,  and  fixed  on  fourteen  as  the 
lowest  age  for  the  marriage  of  females.  These 
were  important  reforms. 

Mr.  Sen's  influence  was  naturally  and  necessarily 
great ;  hut,  in  opposing  the  venerable  leader  of  the 
original  Somaj,  he  had  set  an  example  which  others 
were  quite  willing  to  copy. 

Several  of  his  followers  began  to  demand  more  Discontent 

gfrowing. 

radical  reforms  than  he  was  willing  to  grant. 
The  autocracy  exercised  by  Mr.  Sen  was  strongly 
objected  to ;  and  a  constitution  of  the  Somaj 
was  demanded.  Mr.  Sen  openly  maintained  that 
heaven  from  time  to  time  raises  up  men  en- 
dowed with  special  powers,  and  commissioned 
to  introduce  new  forms  or  "dispensations"  of 
religion ;  and  his  conduct  fully  proved  that  he 
regarded  himself  as  far  above  his  followers. 
Complaints  became  louder ;  and  although  the 
eloquence  and  genius  of  Keshub  were  able  to 
keep  the  rebellious  elements  from  exploding,  it 
was  evident,  as  early  as  1873,  that  a  crisis  was 
approaching.  This  came  in  1878,  when  Mr.  Sen's 
daughter  was  married  to  the  Maharaja  of  Kuch 
Behar.  The  bride  was  not  fourteen,  and  the 
bridegroom  was  sixteen.  Now,  Mr.  Son  had  been 
earnest  and  successful  in  getting  the  Brahmo 
Maxriage  Act  passed,  which  ruled  that  the 
lowest    marriageable     age    for     a     woman    was 


5ft  The  Hindu  Eeitgion. 

fourteen,  and  for  a  man,  eighteen.  Here  was 
gross  inconsistency.  What  could  explain  it? 
"  Amhition,"  exclaimed  great  numbers ;  "  the 
wish  to  exalt  himself  and  his  daughter  by 
alliance  with  a  prince."  But  Mr.  Sen  declared 
that  he  had  consented  to  the  marriage  in  con- 
sequence of  an  express  intimation  that  such  was 
the  will  of  heaven.  Mr.  Sen  denied  miracles,  but 
believed  in  inspiration  ;  and  of  his  own  inspiration 
he  seems  to  have  entertained  no  doubt  We  thus 
obtain  a  glimpse  into  the  peculiar  working  of  his 
.  mind.  Every  full  conviction,  every  strong  wish, 
of  his  own  he  ascribed  to  divine  suggestion.  This 
put  him  in  a  position  of  extreme  peril.  It  was 
clear  that  an  enthusiastic,  imaginative,  self-reliant 
nature  like  his  might  thus  be  borne  on  to  any 
extent  of  fanaticism. 
Revolt.  A  great  revolt  from  Mr.  Sen's  authority  now 

sam&j.  took  place;  and  theSadharan  Samaj  was  organized 
in  May,  1878.  An  appeal  had  been  made  to  the 
members  generally ;  and  no  fewer  than  twenty- one 
provincial  Samajes,  with  more  than  400  members, 
male  and  female,  joined  the  new  society  This 
number  amounted  to  about  two-thirds  of  the  whole 
body.  Keshub  and  his  friends  denounced  the  rebels 
in  very  bitter  language ;  and  yet,  in  one  point  of 
view,  their  secession  was  a  relief.  Men  of  abilities 
equal,  and  education  superior,  to  his  own  had 
hitherto   acted  as  a  drag  on  his  movements ;  he 


The  Hindu  Religion.  69 


was  now  delivered  from  their  interference,  and 
could  deal  with  the  admiring  and  submissive  rem- 
nant as  he  pleased.  Ideas  that  had  been  working 
in  his  mind  now  attained  rapid  development. 
Within  two  years  the  flag  of  the  **  New  Dispensa-  "g^^^.^, 
tion"  was  raised;  and  of  that  dispensation  Mr.  Sen 
was  the  undoubted  head.  Yery  daring  was  the 
language  Mr.  Sen  used  in  a  public  lecture  regarding 
this  new  creation.  He  claimed  equality  for  it 
with  the  Jewish  and  Christian  dispensations,  and 
for  himself  "singular**  authority  and  a  Divino 
commission. 

In  the  Creed  of  the  New  Dispensation  the  name  its  creed, 
of  Christ  does  not  occur.     The  articles  were  as 
follows : — 

a.  One  God,  one  Scripture,  one  Church,  h.  Eternal  progress 
of  the  SouL  c.  Communion  of  Prophets  and  Saints,  d. 
Fatherhood  and  Motherhood  of  God.  e.  Brotherhood  of  Man, 
and  Sisterhood  of  Woman.  /.  Harmony  of  knowledge  and  holi- 
ness, love  and  work,  yoga  and  asceticism  in  their  highest  de- 
velopment,    g.  Loyalty  to  Sovereign. 

The  omission  of  Christ's  name  is  the  more  re-  ^JH^.J"  °' 
markable  because  Mr.  Sen  spoke  much  of  Eim  in  "*''°'®- 
his  public  lectures.  He  had  said  in  May,  1879, 
"  None  but  Jesus,  none  but  Jesus,  none  but  Jesus 
ever  deserved  this  precious  diadem,  India;  and 
Jesus  shall  have  it."  But  he  clearly  indicated  that 
the  Christ  he  sought  was  an  Indian  Christ ;  ono 
who  was  "  a  Hindu  in  faith,"  and  who  would  help 


60  The  Hindu  Religion. 

the  Hindus  to  "realize  their  national  idea  of  a 
yogi'*  (ascetic). 

Let  it  be  noted  that,  from  the  beginning  of  his 
career,  Mr.  Sen  had  spoken  earnestly  of  the  father- 
hood of  God  and  brotherhood  of  man — though 
these  great  conceptions  are  not  of  Hindu  origin. 
It  is  difficult  to  see  why,  in  later  days,  he  insisted 
"Mother-      so  much  on  the  "motherhood  of  God."     Perhaps 

hood  of  ... 

God."  it  was  a  repetition — he  probably  would  have  called 

it  an  exaltation — of  the  old  Hindu  idea,  prevalent 
especially  among  the  worshippers  of  Siva,  that 
there  is  a  female  counterpart — a  Sakti — of  every 
divinity.  Or,  possibly,  it  may  have  been  to  con- 
ciliate the  worshippers  of  Durg^  and  Kdli,  those 
great  goddesses  of  Bengal. 

Public  A  public   proclamation  was   soon   issued,  pur- 

proclamation  , 

froii^o^  porting  to  be  from  God  Himself,  as  India's  Mother. 
The  whole  thing  was  very  startling  ;  many,  even 
of  Keshub's  friends,  declared  it  blasphemous.  Next, 
in  the  '*Flag  Ceremony,"  the  flag  or  banner  of 
the  New  Dispensation  received  a  homage  scarcely 
distinguishable  from  worship.  Then — as  if  in 
strict  imitation  of  the  ancient  adoration  of  Agni, 
or  Fire — a  pile  of  wood  was  lighted,  clarified  butter 
poured  on  it,  and  prayers  addressed  to  it,  ending 
thus — "  O  brilliant  Fire !  in  thee  we  behold  our 
resplendent  Lord."  This  was,  at  least,  symbolism 
run  wild ;  and  every  one,  except  those  who  were 
prepared  to  follow  their  leader  to  all  lengths,  saw 


from  Qod. 


The  Hindu  Religion.  61 

that  in  a  land  Kke  India,  wedded  to  idolatry,  it 
was  fearfully  perilous. 

In  March,  1881,  Mr.  Sen  and  his  friends  intro- 
duced celebrations  which,  to  Christian  minds,  seemed 
a  distressing  caricature  of  the  Christian  sacraments. 
Other  institutions  followed ;  an  Apostolic  Durbar,  "Apostolic 

'  ^  '    Durbar." 

(Court  of  Apostles),  for  instance,  was  estalilished. 
There  was  no  end  to  Mr.  Sen's  inventiveness. 

In  a  public  lecture  delivered  in  January,  1883, 
on  "Asia's  message  to  Europe,"  he  elaborately 
expounded  the  idea  that  all  the  great  religions  are 
of  Asiatic  origin,  and  that  all  of  them  are  true; 
and  that  the  one  thing  required  to  constitute  the 
faith  of  the  future — the  religion  of  humanity — is 
the  blending  of  all  these  varied  Oriental  systems 
into  one. 

It  was  not  easy  to  reconcile  Mr.  Sen's  public  incon. 

^  ^  *  ^      eistencies 

utterances  with  his  private  ones — though  far  be  it  ^J^I^J.^ 
from  us  to  tax  him  with  insincerity.     Thus,  in  an  ^Svite^*^ 
interview   extending   over    two  hours,  which   the  ^^*®^*^<^ 
writer  and  two  missionary  friends  had  with  him  a 
week  or  so  before  the  lecture  now  referred  to,  he 
said  he  accepted  as  true  and  vital  all  the  leading 
doctrines  of  the  Christian  faith,  with  the  exception 
of  the  resurrection  of  Christ.     But  another  funda- 
mental difference  remained — he  avowedly  dissented 
from  the  orthodox  creed  in  rejecting  the  miraculous 
clement  in  Scripture.     At  an  interview  I  had  with 
him  some  time  before,  he  earnestly  disclaimed  all 


62 


TJtc  II I  ml  II  Religion. 


Mr.  Sen's 
policy  of 
reserve. 


intention  to  put  Christ  on  a  level  with  Buddha  or 
Mohammad.  "  I  am  educating  my  friends,"  he 
said,  "  to  understand  and  approve  of  Christianity ; 
I  have  not  yet  said  my  last  word  about  Christ." 
It  is  a  solemn  question — Had  he  said  it  when  his 
career  was  ended  ?  If  so,  it  was  far  from  a  satis- 
factory word.  His  policy  of  reserve  and  adaptation 
had  probably  kept  him  from  uttering  all  that  was 
in  his  heart ;  but  it  was  a  sorely  mistaken  policy. 
Had  he  temporized  less,  he  would  have  accom- 
plished more. 

Since  the  death  of  Mr.  Sen  there  has  been  a 
violent  dispute  between  his  family  and  the 
"Apostolic  Durbar"  on  one  side,  and  one  of 
his  ablest  followers,  on  the  other ;  and  the  New 
Dispensation  will  probably  split  in  two,  if  it  does 
not  perish  altogether. 

In  the  meantime,  the  S^dhS-ran  Sam4j,  which 
broke  off  from  Keshub's  party  in  1878,  has  been 
going  on  with  no  small  vigour.  Vagaries,  either  in 
doctrine  or  rites,  have  been  carefully  shunned  ;  its 
partisans  profess  a  pure  Theistic  creed,  and  labour 
diligently  in  the  cause  of  social  reform.  Their 
position  is  nearly  that  of  Unitarian  Christianity  ; 
and  we  fear  they  are  not  at  present  approxi- 
mating to  the  full  belief  of  the  Church  Catholic. 

Very  similar  in  character  to  the  Brahmo  Somaj 
is  the  Prarthana  Somaj  in  Western  India.  As 
far  back   as   1850,  or  a  little  earlier,  there  was 


The 

Sadharan 

Sainaj. 


.Movements 
ill  Western 
I  ndia 


The  Rindu  Religion.  63 

formed    a    society    called   the   Prarthana    SaLh^  Tenets  of  the 

I'rSrthana 

(Prayer   Meeting).      Its    loading    teuets    were    as  ^*^^^- 
follows : — 

1.  I  believe  in  one  God.  2.  I  renounce  idol-worship.  3.  I 
will  do  my  beat  to  lead  a  moral  life.  4.  If  I  commit  any  sin 
through  the  weakness  of  my  moral  nature,  I  will  repent  of  it,  /- 

and  ask  the  pardon  of  God. 

The  Society,  after  some  time,  began  to  languish ; 
but  in  1867  it  was  revived  under  the  name  of 
Pr^rthan^  Somaj.  Its  chief  branches  are  in  Bombay, 
Poena,  Ahmedabad,  and  Surat. 

An  interesting  movement  called  the  Arya  Sara&j 
was  commenced  a  few  years  ago  by  a  Pandit, — 
DavEinand  Sarasvati.     He  received  the  Yedas  as  -^« 

.         .  SamtJ, 

fully  inspired,  but  maintained  that  they  taught 
monotheism, — Agni,  Indra,  and  all  the  rest  being 
merely  different  names  of  God.  It  was  a  desperate 
effort  to  save  the  reputation  of  the  ancient  books ; 
but,  as  all  Sanskrit  scholars  saw  at  a  glance,  the 
whole  idea  was  a  delusion.  The  Pandit  is  now 
dead;  and  the  Arya  Sam^j  may  not  long  survive 
him. 

At  the  time  we  write  we  hear  of  an  attempt  to 
defend  idolatry  and  caste  made  by  men  of  con- 
siderable education. 

The  so-called  "  Theosophists  '*  have,  for  several 
years,  been  active  in  India.     Of  existing  religions, 
Buddhism  is  their  natural  ally.    They  are  atheists.  Th«)3ophist« 
A  combination  which  they  formed  with  the  Arya 
Sam^j  speedily  came  to  an  end. 


64  The  Hindu  Religion, 

Lastly,  the  followers  of  Mr.  Bradlaugh  are  dili- 
gent in  supplying  their  books  to  Indian  students. 

Poor  India !  No  wonder  if  her  mind  is  be- 
wildered as  she  listens  to  such  a  Babel  of  voices. 
The  state  of  things  in  India  now  strikingly  re- 
sembles that  which  existed  in  the  Roman  Empire 
at  the  rise  of  Christianity ;  when  east  and  west 
were  brought  into  the  closest  contact,  and  a  great 
conflict  of  systems  of  thought  took  place  in  con- 
sequence. 

But  even  as  one  hostile  form  of  Gnostic  belief 
rose  after  another,  and  rose  only  to  fall, — and  as 
the  greatest  and  best-discipKned  foe  of  early  Chris- 
tianity— the  later  Platonism — gave  way  before  the 
steady,  irresistible  march  of  Gospel  truth,  so — we 
have  every  reason  to  hope — ^it  will  be  yet  again. 
The  Christian  feels  his  heart  swell  in  his  breast 
as  he  thinks  what,  in  all  human  probability,  India 
will  be  a  century,  or  even  half  a  century,  hence. 
Oh  what  a  new  life  to  that  fairest  of  Eastern  lands, 
when  she  casts  herself  in  sorrow  and  supplication 
at  the  feet  of  the  Living  God,  and  then  rises  to 
proclaim  to  a  listening  world 

Her  deep  repentance  and  her  new-found  joy ! 

May  God  hasten  the  advent  of  that  happy  day  ! 


BUDDHISM: 

A    COMPARISON    AND   A    CONTRAST 


BETWEEN 


BUDDHISM    AND    CHRISTIANITY 


HENRY  ROBERT   REYNOLDS,  D.D. 


^vQummt  (xi  th^  Trax}t< 


Buddhism  and  Christianity  are  comparea  and  contrasted 
in  respect  to  their  external  resemblances,  and  fundamental 
and  essential  divergencies  and  antitheses,  viz.  :  their  local 
origin ;  the  histories  of  their  founders ;  their  relation  to  the 
past ;  the  place  given  in  both  to  the  death  of  the  founders ; 
the  basis  of  the  two  systems,  and  their  historical  development 
as  organised  societies  ;  the  resemblances  are  shown  to  be 
illusory  in  the  extreme ;  the  differences  vital  and  all-important. 

Christ  revealed  the  Father — took  human  sorrows  and  death 
on  Himself,  that  He  might  take  them  away ;  laid  down  His 
life,  that  He  might  take  it  again  ;  died,  the  just  for  the  unjust ; 
He  saves  men  from  their  sins.  He  fulfilled  the  law  and  the 
prophets.  The  highest  Christian  virtue  is  not  practised  for 
the  extinction  of  desire,  but  because  pardon  through  faith  in 
Christ's  blood  has  been  received.  Christian  holiness  is  the 
purification  of  the  most  essential  characteristics  of  human 
nature.  The  end  set  before  the  Christian  is  the  liope  of 
beholding  Christ's  glory,  and  being  with  Him  and  like  Him 
for  ever.  The  peace  of  the  Christian  is  not  the  obliteration 
but  the  satisfaction  of  desire,  and  the  result  of  reconciliation 
with  God  through  Christ.  The  Christian  desires  that  Christ 
may  be  magnified  in  his  body  whether  by  life  or  death. 

The  history  of  Buddhism  is  sketched,  and  the  resemblances 
to  the  history  of  Christianity  are  shown  to  be  in  the  laws 
that  regulate  all  human  society. 

Buddhism  knows  no  being  as  the  First  Cause  of  all  things, 
as  the  basis  of  moral  obligation,  or  Ruler  of  the  universe. 

The  doctrine  of  Buddhism  concerning  the  ground  of  the 
universe  is  agnostic,  if  not  positively  atheistic. 

Law,  according  to  Buddhism,  is  impersonal.  It  has  no 
conception  of  pardon,  redemption,  or  sacrifice,  and  is  an 
exceeding  bitter  cry  for  what  Christianity  has  to  off"er,  viz. :  an 
antidote  for  sin,  reconciliation  with  God,  hope  in  death,  and 
union  with  God  through  Christ.  Reason  for  hoping  that  when 
Christ  is  made  known  to  it,  Buddhism  will  call  Him  Lord  of  all. 


BUDDHISM 


I^^^^^UDDHISM  in  its  origin  was  a  philosophical  Buddhism 
iN  ^^41  method  rather  than   a   religious  faith.  ^°p^^^ 
■H  k!hLJ  M^iiy  experiments  have  been  made  by  rreuiiOTTs" 

mighty  thinkers  to  solve  the  mystery  of 
human  life.  This  was  one  of  them.  The  principles 
of  Gautama  the  Buddha,  an  Indian  sago,  were  not 
absolutely  new,  nor  were  his  methods  unknown, 
when  he  essayed  his  memorable  task.  His  im- 
mense personality,  assisted  by  current  tendencies  at 
work  in  Hind{l  society,  enabled  him  to  originate 
a  society,  which  has  in  its  main  features,  during 
more  than  two  thousand  years,  dominated  large 
portions  of  the  continent  of  Asia. 

The  ideas  and  institutions  which  date  from  the  The  wide 

influence  of 

initiatory  of  Gautama  exercise  a  potent  spell  m  Buddhism. 
their  most  antique  form  over  Ceylon,  British  and 
Native  Burmah,  Siam,  Anam,  and  (in  the  form  of 
Jainism)  over  parts  of  North  Western  India.  With 
large  modification  Buddhism  has  prevailed  over 
eighteen  provinces  of  China,  where  it  is  held  in 
combination  with  Confucianism  and  Taoism. 
Buddhism  has  exerted  much  influence  in  Japan,  in  Japan. 


Buddhism. 


where  it  has  suffered  the  embrace  of  the  aboriginal 
nature- worship.  It  has  been  corrupted  in  some 
outlying  tribes  by  devil-worship,  and  the  rites  of 

In  iibet  Siva.  In  Tibet  it  has  developed  into  a  complicated 
hierarchy,  and  has  culminated  in  a  patriarchal  and 
pontifical  regime.  Here  Buddhism  is  the  State  re- 
ligion, and  has  created  an  organization  and  diffused 
ideas  which  have  powerfully  affected  Mongolia, 
Mantchuria,  and  other  states  tributary  to  China. 

In  NepaL  In  Nepal  at  one  time  a  most  impressive  develop- 
ment of  the  Buddhistic  faith  prevailed,  and  one 
which  was  theoretically  based  on  Monotheistic 
ideas.  Though  Buddhism  took  its  origin  in  the 
Aryan,  its  greatest  triumphs  have  been  won  over 
the  Turanian  races,  and  it  has  been  compared  to 
a  vast  parasitical  growth,  which  has  fed  on  the 
life  and  covered  the  institutions  of  various  types  of 

Its  present    civilization.     Its  propaganda  is  not  at  an  end.     At 

increase  m  ir      r    o 

Tartary.  ^j^g  present  hour  it  is  said  to  be  increasing  in 
Tartary,  it  sends  its  missionaries  to  Australia  and 
California,  has  made  a  vigorous  attempt  to  co- 
operate with  Western  Pessimism,  and  professes  to 
formulate  a  true  philosophy  of  history. 

Buddha- "^^  Buddha  may  be  discriminated  from  the  his- 
torical and  practical  issues  of  his  thought,  as 
Christ  is  discriminated  from  Christendom. 

If  by  "  Buddhism "  be  meant  the  ideas  and 
discipline  of  the  earliest  followers  of  Gautama, 
irrespective  of  their  subsequent  development,  our 


dom. 


Buddhism. 


tlieine  is  a  literary  and  exegetic  one,  and  turns 
upon  tlie  relative  value  of  Pali,  Sanscrit,  Tibetan, 
and    Chinese    books.      On   the    other    hand,    if  a  wnoie 

duster  of 

"Buddhism"   be   regarded   as   synonymous   with  g^gut?,^. 
what   may  be  called  "  Buddha-dom,"  it  must  be  f^S"uddha 
held   to   embrace   the   geographical   and    historic    °™* 
features  of  a  whole  cluster  of  religious  institutions, 
which  have  mastered,  for  more  than  a  thousand 
years,  a  fourth  part  of  the  human  race.     Seeing 
that  the  Northern  Buddhists  outnumber  the  older 
and  more  orthodox  followers  fifteen  times  over,  we 
cannot  exclude  their  peculiarities  from  our  estimate 
of   what  Buddhism   is,   and   its  relation   to  both 
Christ  and  Christendom. 

The  comparison  between  Christianity  and  Buddh- 
ism embraces  a  comparison  in  both  senses. 

The  resemblances  between  Buddha-dom  and  Christ-  The  resem- 
endora  are  imposing  but  superficial,  they  spring  from  between 
the  common  material  with  which  both  systems  have  ^Z^.  ^"*l 

•'  Cnnstendoir. 

had  to  deal,  and  from  the  similar  conditions  under  s"P«^fi«ui- 
which  they  have  laboured  even  for  opposite  ends. 

The  divergencies  and  opposition,  and  utter  dis- 
similarity between  Buddhism  and  Christianity 
belong  to  their  inmost  essence  and  aim. 

The  purport  of  the  present  Tract  is  to  illustrate  The  diver- 
gencies and 
this    twofold   representation    by   enumerating:  the  dissimiiantj 

^  •'  °  essential. 

details  of  this  argument.  In  doing  so,  the  reader 
will  be  reminded  of  the  principal  facts  with  re- 
ference to  Buddha  and  his  religion. 


Buddhima. 


We  propose  to  enumerate 

I.  The  impressive  external  resemblances  between 
Buddhadom  and  Christendom^  calling  attention  in 
these  very  respects  to  the  contrasts  which  accompany 
them. 

II.  The  fundamental  divergencies  and  antitheses 
between  Buddhism  and  Christianity, 


The  geo- 
graphical 
origin  of 
the  two 
religions. 


The  lands 
of  the 
Bible. 


Cliristian 
ideas  and. 
principles 
arose  by 
God's  grace 
in  human 
hearts  and 
Uvea. 


1.  The  Holy  Lands. — These  two  religions  re- 
semble one  another  in  having  taken  their  origin  in 
a  limited  geographical  region,  identified  with  the 
actions  and  career  of  their  Founders,  which  after 
the  lapse  of  time  ceased  to  be  the  centres  of  the 
faith,  but  acquired  a  factitious  importance  and  in- 
spired a  sentimental  and  superstitious  reverence. 

Sinai  and  Palestine  still  contain  .the  sites  where 
the  highest  manifestations  of  the  living  God  have 
been  made  to  men.  The  lands  of  the  Bible  have 
attracted  pilgrims  from  the  ends  of  the  earth,  who 
have  there  sought  to  deepen  their  faith,  increase 
their  knowledge,  and  satisfy  their  yearniDg  after  a 
closer  intimacy  with  the  facts  of  our  redemption. 

However  spiritual  the  form  of  our  Christianity 
may  be,  we  cannot  ignore  the  fact  that  its  noblest 
ideas  and  principles  arose  by  God's  grace  in  human 
minds  and  lives,  and  that  its  most  stupendous  facts 
were  enacted  on  this  planet,  by  men  and  women 


Buddhism, 


who  trod  the  soil  of  this  solid  earth.  Christianity 
is  not  based  on  a  mere  speculation,  a  transcendental 
dream  thought  out  in  the  spirit-world,  and  inde- 
pendent of  place  and  time  and  circumstance.     It  Christianity 

based  on 

rests  on  a  notable  series  of  historic  facts,  and  is  ^istoric 

'  facts,  hence 

associated  with  certain  events  which  occurred  at  of^he**''^^* 
discoverable   dates  in  the  drama  of  human  life,  pfaS*' 
and  therefore  scientific  criticism  as  well  as  pious 
pilgrimage  still   gathers  with  zest  and  unabated 
interest  around   Sinai   and   Bethlehem,   Calvary, 
and  Olivet. 

Now  Buddhism  took  its  chief  departure  in  the  Buddhism 
bosom  of  a  Hindii  Sasre,  whose  ideas  led  him  to  in  the 

°  ^      ^  bosom  of 

certain  very  memorable  acts  of   renunciation,   to  ga^^j^^J^ae 
sore   conflict,  and   life- long   teaching.     His   birth  are^sst^" 
and  death,  his  parentage  and  consecration,  with  certain^tea. 
numerous  events  in  his  career,  are  associated  with 
certain  ascertainable  sites.     These  have  sustained 
through  even  a  longer  period  than  the  holy  places 
of  Palestine  have  done,  the  reverence  and  affection 
of  devout  Buddhists.    Between  the  outlying  moun-  piacea  of 

p      1         XT'        1  1       1         /->«  Gautama'i 

tains  01  the  Himalayan  range  and  the  (ianges,  Jij^J^a^d 
between  long.  E.  75^  and  85®,  watered  by  numerous 
rivers,  and  diversified  with  numerous  centres  of 
Hindu  life  ;  between  Sravasti  {Sahet  Mahet)  in 
N.W.,  Raja-Griha  (Raj-gir),  and  Gay  a  and  Pata- 
liputra  {Patna)  in  E.  and  S.E.,  will  be  found 
Kapilavastu,  the  birthplace  of  Gautama,  and 
Kusinagara,  the  place   where   he  died,  and   also 


death. 


Buddhism. 


numerous  other  consecrated  spots  where  the  cremated 
ashes  of  his  hody  rest.  Here  also  are  various 
scenes  dear  to  the  Buddhist  legend,  and  for  many 
ages  visited  by  pilgrims  from  China  and  Mongolia, 
from  Kashmir  and  Khotan,  from  Ceylon  and 
Burmah.  They  were  sacred  places  when  Buddhism 
was  still  a  dominant  faith  in  N.W.  India,  and  they 
were  treated  with  even  deeper  reverence  when  the 
faith  had  perished  on  its  earliest  geographic  site. 
Some  of  the  most  interesting  Buddhistic  literature 
which  is  still  extant  describes  the  eagerness  and 
enthusiasm  displayed  by  the  pious  devotees  who, 
in  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  centuries  of  our 
era,  encountered  incredible  obstacles  in  their  resolve 
to  visit  these  sacred  shrines,  to  obtain  books,  relics 
and  images  of  the  faith  which  was  dear  to  them. 
The  This  superficial  resemblance  to  the  outward  career 

guperficial  *■ 

resem-  of  a  reliffion  profoundly  dissimilar  in  its  essence, 

blances  anse  or./  ' 

humai^^  arises  from  the  purely  human  interest  that  ever- 
attSfng  to  more  attaches  to  the  place  where  great  things 
great  things  have   bocn   said   and   done.     The  parallel  is  not 

have  been  n  -rk      i  n  • 

said  or         confined  to  the  external  features  of  Buddhism  and 

done. 

Christianity.  It  runs  through  the  history  of  other 
faiths  which  have  travelled  from  their  geographical 
origin  to  distant  lands,  and  which  yet  have  attracted 
undying  affection  to  the  cradle  of  their  infancy. 

2.  The  superficial  resemblances  between  the 
Founders  of  Buddhism  and  Christianity. 

The  latest  researches  make  it  doubtful  whether 


Buddhism. 


Gautama,  the  son  of  Suddhodana,  was  the  heir  of  Hereditary 
a  roi/al  estate  or  dominion,  as  Jesus  was,  but  the  oautama. 
legend  undoubtedly  confers  on  his  father  and  on 
the  Sakyas  this  distinction,  coupling  it  with  august 
accessories,   boundless   wealth,    and  far-extending 
influence.     Reverence  for  him,  and  an  idea  of  his  Supposed 
spotless  purity  of  heart  and  life,  assumed  in  the  natural 
latest  legend  an  introduction  into  the  world  by  a 
supernatural  process,  wliicli,  from  the  first,  singled 
out  this  great  sage  and  recluse  for   the   highest 
possible  vocation.     If  he  should  become  a  king  he  Hia  destiny 

and  mission. 

was  at  once  prophesied  of  as  about  to  become  the 
ruler  over  all  lands  and  worlds ;  and  if  he  should 
appear  as  a  sage,  he  would  be  the  long-expected 
Buddha,  "the  man  perfectly  enlightened,"  who 
would  achieve  the  highest  victories  over  the  evils 
of  humanity,  and  lead  the  human  race  towards 
the  realization  of  its  highest  goal. 

There  is  no  reason  to  question  the  na?ne  of  the 
father  of  Gautama,  the  name  of  his  wife — the 
saintly  Maya,  who  died  seven  days  after  the  birth 
of  her  child — or  of  the  city  (Kapila-mstu) ,  where 
this  extraordinary  child  first  saw  the  light,  in  the 
sixth  century  b.c.  The  legends  of  China,  Cfylon,  Legends 
and  Nepal  tell  us  that  as  soon  as  he  was  born  he  ^  ^irth. 
declared  that  this  was  his  last  birth,  and  that  he 
was  the  greatest  of  all  beings.  Such  supposed 
language  indicates  the  reverence  felt  for  his  unique 
career  in   after  years;  so  also  does  the  pathetic 


10  Buddhism, 


incident,  that  after  this  precocious  babe  bad  placed 
his  feet  upon  the  head  of  one  of  the  greatest  sages, 
this  wise  man  declared  that  Gautama  would  prove 
to  be  the  Buddha,  but  he  wept  that  he  should  not 
himself  live  to  see  the  wondrous  effect  of  his 
teaching  and  life. 


Names  The  uames  given  in  later  times  to  him  are  very 

ghen  to  •  1  r*_T 

torn  in         numerous.      Sakya-muni,-    "  the     Sakya 


later  times. 


Bhagava,  "  the  blessed  one ;  "  Tathagata,  "  the 
excellent  one ; "  Loka-nartha,  **  the  Lord  of  the 
world ; "  Dharma-raja,  "  the  king  of  the  law," 
or  "of  righteousness."  These  are  poetic  expres- 
sions denoting  the  range  and  depth  of  his  subsequent 
j.Tie  natural  influence.     The   natural  desire   of   the   father  of 

bent  of 

Gautama.  Gautama  that  his  son  should  be  prepared  for  the 
office  and  dignities  of  a  prince  was  strangely 
thwarted  by  the  bent  of  the  youthful  prince 
towards  philosophy  and  ascetic  habit.  He  was 
married  to  the  daughter  of  a  king,  and  surrounded 
by  all  the  blandishments  of  an  Eastern  court,  but 
they  all  failed  to  disturb  his  meditation  on  the 
evils  and  transitory  nature  of  human  life. 

The  visions        The    legends   narrate  the  efforts  made   by  his 

he  saw  in 

spite  of  his    father  to  conceal  from  him  the  facts  of  human 

fathers  pre- 

keeM^om**    sorrow ;  but   that,  in  spite  of  all  precaution,   he 

?aSs^of        saw  a  vision  of  old  age,  with  its  wrinkled  skin  and 

Bo™oT.         tottering  gait ;  another  time,  a  victim  of  loathsome 

disease^  of  repulsive  and  forsaken  aspect,  and  on  a 

third  occasion   a  dead   body  awaiting  cremation. 


Buddhi^,     (^3^      .v\^5^^     11 


After  each  vision  he  returned  to  his  palace  broken- 
hearted and  despairing.  It  is  said  that  on  a  fourth 
expedition,  surrounded  by  all  the  pomp  of  the  court, 
he  saw  the  form  of  a  rigid  ascetic,  who  seemed  to 
him  to  promise  the  only  method  of  escape  from  the 
evils  of  life  by  extinction  of  ambition  and  con- 
cupiscence.    The  legends  describe  his  marvellous  ms  physical 

r       .  .  .  .      .  ^^^  mental 

skill  in  all  athletic  sports,  and  his  superiority  to  superiority. 
all  competitors  in  mental  and  physical  powers ;  but 
nothing  availed  to  prevent  what  has  been  called  his 
"  Great  Renunciation,^'  when,  with  a  solitary  attend-  nis  great 
ant,  he  broke  away  from  his  home,  wife,  and  only  *'^°" 
child,  looked  with  loathing  on  the  faded  beauty  of 
his  singing  women,  as  they  lay  in  sleep  around  the 
courts  of  his  harem,  exchanged  his  dress  with  that 
of  a  mendicant,  sent  his  attendant  back  with  a 
message  to  his  home,  and  commenced  his  memor- 
able career  of  self -mortification,  intent  upon  dis- 
covering the  truth  of  human  life.  The  intense 
picturesqueness  of  the  main  facts  has  been  overlaid 
with  a  thousand  ornamental  additions  to  the  story, 
which  were  calculated  to  augment  the  force  of  the 
"renunciation,"  and  throw  the  spirit  of  it  back 
into  previous  lives  that  he  is  supposed  to  have 
lived,  in  each  of  which  he  performed  similar  acts  of 
abnegation  and  devotion  to  the  highest  interests  of 
the  living  beings  with  whom  he  came  into  contact.-^ 

*  Spence  Hardy,  Manual  of  Buddhism,  pp.  98-359.     Dr.  R. 
Davids,  JataJca  Stories,  Sacred  Books  of  the  East. 


12 


Buddhism. 


contrast  to 
the  life  of 
our  TiOrd. 


Doubtless  there  is  some  analogy  between  these 
stories,  and  the  record  of  the  introduction  into  the 
world  of  the  Son  of  God,  the  song  of  angels,  the 
prophecy  of  Simeon,  and  the  solitary  incident  of  the 
youth  of  Jesus  as  preserved  in  the  canonical  Gospels. 
But  the  essential  distinction  between  them  lies  in 
this,  that  our  Lord  followed  the  lot  of  ordinary 
men,  ate  with  publicans  and  sinners,  notwithstand- 
ing his  prophetic  mission,  pursued  the  quiet  trade 
of  his  father  Joseph,  proclaimed  war  against  sin, 
rather  than  against  suffering,  and  far  from  accepting 
the  transitory  nature  of  earthly  pleasure  as  a  curse, 
poured  new  light  on  life  and  death.  The  funda-  | 
mental  principle  of  Buddha  treated  existence  as  a 
curse  which  must  be  evaded ;  the  fundamental 
principle  of  Christ's  "great  renunciation''  of  honours 
and  glory  unutterable,  involved  the  sublime  fact 
that  life  was  the  synonym  of  blessedness,  and  that 
that  blessedness  might  be  eternal.  He  did  not 
turn  away  from  the  agonies  of  human  life.  He 
treated  them  as  abnormal,  not  inevitable.  He 
took  them  upon  Himself.  He  healed  disease. 
He  cleansed  the  leper.  He  raised  the  dead.  He 
confidently  affirmed,  "  Whoso  liveth  and  believeth 
in  Me  shall  never  die." 

A  superficial  resemblance  to  the  career  of  our 
Divine  Lord  was  an  early  temptation  of  Gautama 
to  relinquish  the  sublime  purpose  on  which  he  had 
entered.     Mara,  the  spirit  of  evil,  and  an  imper- 


The  funda- 
mental 
principles 
of  Buddha 
and  Christ 
essentially 
divergent. 


The  temp- 
tation of 
Oa-atama. 


Buddhism,  13 


sonation  of  the  idea  of  deatli,  assailed  him  with 
thoughts  which  were  to  turn  him  aside  from  his 


'O' 


beneficent  career.     Legend  has  amplified  these  in  Legendary 

°  ^  amplifica^ 

the  later  chronicles  with  the  astounding  efflorescence  ^i°"\<>* 

o  the  story. 

of  Oriental  imagination.  He  was  approached  by 
seductive  hallucinations,  and  when  wanton  beauty 
failed,  Mara  put  forth  the  thunders  of  his  wrath, 
and  hurled  a  hundred  thousand  burning  moun- 
tains (!)  at  him,  but  they  fell  in  garlands  of  flowers 
at  his  feet.  He  overcame  all  the  threats,  and  msyictory 
seductions,  and  illusions  of  the  spirit  of  evil,  and 
continued  his  self-sacrifice. 

This  great  event  in  Buddha's  life,  in  which  he  Accompany- 

'^  ^  ^  ing  physical 

won   the   victory   over    all    evil   suggestion,   was  portents. 
accompanied,  according  to  the  legend,  with  physical 
convulsions  of  nature.     The  sun  was  turned  into 
darkness,   the  stars  fell  from   heaven,    ''headless 
spirits  filled  the  air." 

This  conflict,  in   which  the  moral  creatnoss  of  His  conflict 

*-"  connected 

Gautama  appeared  triumphant,  w-as  connected  with  jjquirii  as 
an  effort  on  his  part  to  gather  from  the  known  caui^^and 
Brahman  teachers    who    preceded   him,  all  such  ofTSan" 
light  as  they  could  give  him  as  to  the  cause  and 
termination    of   human   sorrow.      Their   methods 
and  their  reasonings   dissatisfied  him.      He   also 
made  trial  of  the  most  complete  ascetic  rule,  and 
practised     abstention    from    food     and     extreme 
mortification  of   the  flesh.      He   is   said   to  have 
spent  six  years  in  these  exercises,  to  have  secured 


14 


Bvddhisrri. 


thereby  the  greatest  reputation  as  a  lonely  hermit, 
and  to  have  drawn  around  him  admirers  and 
imitators.  Wiser  than  the  Stylites  of  Christian 
asceticism,  Gautama  found  that  he  came  no 
nearer  to  the  solution  of  his  great  problem,  and 
resolved  to  alter  his  course,  to  take  food,  to 
renounce  his  bodily  mortification. 

In  doing  this  he  alienated  his  earliest  disciples, 
who  fled  from  him  to  Benares,  leaving  him,  stung 
by  their  lack  of  appreciation,  to  encounter  with 
surprising  courage  new  difficulties.  It  was  after 
his  friends  left  him,  that  he  retired  to  the  shade  of 
a  Bo-tree,  at  Gaya,  known  ever  since  as  the  most 
sacred  spot  in  Buddhadom.  There  he  passed 
through  the  crisis  of  his  ministry,  coming  by  stern 
exercise  of  thought  to  the  idea,  that  not  by  out- 
ward penances,  but  by  inward  culture  ;  not  by 
rites  and  ceremonies,  but  by  love  and  gentleness 
to  others;  not  by  spitefully  punishing  the  flesh, 
but  by  the  cessation  of  all  desire,  by  the  blowing 
out  of  the  fires  of  lust  and  anger  and  illusion,  he 
would  reach  a  state  of  mind  which  would  be  per- 
fect peace. 

This  series  of  struggles  and  conflicts  of  the  man 
Gautama  bears  a  shadowy  but  not  a  real  resemblance 
to  the  temptation  ana  the  victory  of  the  Lord 
Christ.  In  the  case  of  Jesus,  absolute  loyalty  to 
the  Holy  Father's  will,  when  He  was  tempted  by 
the  flesh  aud  the  devil  to  secure  that  very  will  by 


His  failure 
to  solve  the 
great 
problem, 
and  the 
abandon- 
ment of  his 
bodily  mor- 
tification. 


Abandoned 
by  his 
disciples  he 
betakes 
himself 
to  the  Bd- 
tree. 


There 
learns  the 
thought  that 
perfect 
peace  is 
attained  by 
inward 
culture 


Shadowy  re- 
semblances 
to  the 
temptation 
and  victory 
of  Christ. 


BuddMsfm.  15 


self-gratification,  was  triumphant  over  every  seduc- 
tion.     The  Bo-tree  of  Buddhism  corresponds  in  The 

Buddhist 

vasrue  way  with  the  Cross,  "  the  cursed  tree     on  B6-tree  and 

°  ^  ^  ^  \  the  Cross 

which  the  Saviour  died,  but  it  suggests  throughout  g^j^^SS^^o. 
profoundly  different  ideas.     The  "  sacred  tree  "  of  J^Jerent 
Buddhism  is  a  symbol  of  the  highest  point  of  ex-  ^  ^^" 
altation  which  Oriental  intelligence  and  virtue  ever 
reached.     The  "  cursed  tree  "  of  Christianity,  where 
Jesus  the  Just  died  for  the  unjust,  is  a  symbol  of 
the  most  terrible  condemnation  of  human  corrup- 
tion ;  but  the  most  amazing  manifestation  of  the 
love,  the  righteousness,  the  justice,  the  wisdom 
and  power  of  God. 

There  is   no   need  to   throw  a  single   shadow  Gautama'u 
over  the  moral  excellence  of  Gautama.     He  went  and 

methods. 

about  preaching  and  teaching  the  deliverance  that 
he  believed  himself  to  have  found  from  all  the 
evils  incident  to  human  life.  His  methods  were 
those  of  moral  suasion.  He  adopted  no  arm  of 
power  to  enforce  submission  to  his  method  or 
secret.  The  parabolic  style  of  instruction  gave 
vivacity  to  his  discourse.  He  called  upon  men  to 
pursue  the  middle  path  between  the  pleasures  of 
sense,  and  the  mortifications  of  the  ascetic  schools. 

"  Sorrow  "  was  with  him  the  direct  consequence  ma  view 
of  the  sense  of  individuality,  and  consciousness  of  and  how 

.    '  .  to  procurt 

desire  thwarted  or  ungratified.    Cessation  of  sorrow  i^s^^ 
was  only  to  be  secured  by  freedom  from  all  these 
causes  of  sorrow,  all  the  cravings  which  nrolouc. 


16 


Buddhism. 


The  Hindu 
tlieory  of 
the  ego 
accepted 
and  utilised 
by  him. 


the  illusion  of  one's  separate  interests  or  individual 
being.  He  approximated  to  the  Hindu  theory, 
which  makes  consciousness  of  the  Ego  an  illusion, 
and  all  the  facts  of  human  life  and  mundane 
existence  as  waves  passing  over  a  houndless  ocean 
of  heing.  Accepting  this  as  the  deepest  truth, 
Gautama  utilized  it,  as  the  gospel  of  deliverance 
from  all  the  miseries  of  existence,  and  endeavoured 
to  bring  his  followers  to  his  own  placid  view  of  the 
boundless  evils  of  life  by  the  practice  of  a  virtue 
which  aimed  at  the  obliteration  of  desire.  Desire 
was  the  radical  source  of  every  calamity  from  birth 
to  death,  and  after  death. 

From  reasons  utterly  diverse  from  these,  our 
Lord  demanded  inward  purity,  and  holy  conduct, 
simplicity  of  motive,  and  detachment  from  the 
world.  His  disciples  were  to  take  up  the  Cross 
and  follow  Him,  to  come  to  Him,  and  to  rest  in 
Him,  to  take  sides  with  Him  against  sin,  to  believe 
in  Him,  as  one  able  to  save  and  to  confer  eternal 
life,  as  One  destined  to  judge  all  conduct  and 
motive,  and  all  the  inward  springs  of  life.  He 
promised  to  do  that  for  men  by  His  own  perfection 
of  being  and  sacrifice  which  they  could  not  do  for 
themselves.  He  saved  men  from  their  sins.  The 
highest  virtue  in  the  theory  of  Gautama  was 
pursued  and  practised  with  the  view  of  ex- 
tinguishing all  desire  whatsoever,  and  of  losing 
all  consciousness  of  Ego.     He  taught  men  to  lose 


Desire, 
according  to 
him,  the 
source  of 
every 
calamity. 

The 

demands  of 
Christ 
essentially 
iifferent. 


His 

promises. 


His 
aalvatioii 


Buddhism.  V 


self,  not  in  the  bosom  of  the  eternal  Being,  but  in 

the  ocean  of  wow-existence.     The  highest  virtue  in  ^^tue^^^'^^* 

the  way  revealed  by  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  follows  GautamI  *" 

n  1         •     '  -J  ^    and  accor- 

as  a  consequence  oi  our  haviug  received  a  new  and  ding  to 
nobler    Ego,   and    because    our   sins    have    been  contrasted. 
pardoned  through  faith  in  His  atoning  blood.    The 
highest  kind  of  Christian  life  involves  a  quenchless 
yearning  after  God  Himself,  a  supreme  love  to  the 
Father,  and   to   Christ   as   the  revelation  of   the  ] 
Father.     The  Buddha's  holiness  was  the  extinction  Buddhist 

and 

of    the    most   essential   characteristics   of    human  ^o^^egg* 
nature ;  the  Christ's  holiness  was  the  purification  [  <^^^^t^- 
and  intensification  of  all  those  characteristics.    The ; 
end  set  before  the  pious  follower  of  Buddha  was  The  end  oi 
to  renounce  the  highest  possibilities  of  man,  and  ^j^d1;he* 
descend   to  the   passionless   calm  of   some  purely  chri.SiaS!^ 
vegetative  existence,  which  contemplated  nothing, 
desired  nothing,  enjoyed  nothing,  feared  nothing, 
expected  nothing,  suffered  nothing;    but  the  end 
set  before  the  humblest  follower  of  Jesus,  was  to 
think  deeply,  to  desire  the   greatest  uplifting,  to 
master  outward   sorrow   with  a  joy  unspeakable, 
to  triumph  over  illusion  by  reality,  to  suffer  and 
die  with  the  Christ,  in  blessed  hope  of  beholding 
His  glory,  of  being  with  Him  and  like  Him  for  ever. 

3.  The  relation  of  both  religions  to  the  P\st. 

The   Christ   cannot   be  properly    understood  if  ot^chSt^^to 
no  account  be  taken  of  the  faith  and  hope  of  Israel,    ^^^ ' 
or  of  a  pre-existent  literature  of  unspeakable  value, 

0 


18 


Buddhism. 


Christ's 
relation 
to  the 
scriptures 
of  the  Old 
Testament. 

Buddha's 
relation  to 
an  older 
faith. 


Oriental 
speculation 
about  "'the 
sorrow  of 
the  world." 


Contending 
powers  and 
forces. 


which  enshrined  both.  Christ's  claim  was  founded 
upon  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures.  He  fulfilled 
the  law  and  the  prophets. 

Buddha  cannot  be  understood  if  it  be  not  re- 
membered that  his  entire  career  was  coloured  by 
the  far-reaching  influences  of  an  older  faith  that 
lie  adopted,  after  he  had  freed  them  from  some 
of  the  exclusive  and  national  forms  which  tbey 
had  assumed.  As  a  philosopher  he  built  upon 
the  speculation  of  the  older  schools  of  thought, 
and  as  a  great  teacher  he  aimed  to  deliver  man- 
kind from  the  evil  which  earlier  Hindu  sages  had 
recognized  as  appertaining  to  mundane  life. 

Long  before  the  days  of  Gautama,  "  the  sorrow 
of  the  world "  and  of  man  had  pressed  on  the 
Oriental  mind  with  terrific  force.  Speculation, 
following  upon  the  simpler  conceptions  of  the 
Yedic  age,  had  led  to  a  discrimination  between 
the  Supreme  Atman,  the  breathing  energy  or  sub- 
ject of  all  thought,  identified  as  it  was  with 
Brahma,  the  all-pervading  force,  the  essence  of 
all  things,  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other 
the  plurality  of  existence  and  impermanence  which 
was  "  not  Atman,"  which  had  issued  from  his  sense 
of  loneliness  and  unrest.  Men  saw  on  all  sides  of 
them  formless  powers,  chaotic  forces  contending 
with  each  other  and  with  them.  Death  put  on 
new  and  fearful  aspects.  As  an  enemy  he  did  not 
spend  his  power  in  the  one  blow  he  struck  at  any 


Buddhism.  I'J 


living  thing.      Unless  men  had  propitiated  these  The  need 
powers  of  destruction,  they  would  be  ceaselessly  pitSng 
pursued  in  other  worlds  by  the  tyrant  death,  who  <>;  destmo- 
would  continuously  smite  down  the  new  life  which 
they  would  at  each  death  assume.     From  the  first 
there   was  commingled  with  the  fear  of   metem- 
psychosis, the  hope  and  possibility  of  deliverance 
from  it,  but  the  fear  itself  produced  a  boundless, 
haunting  dismay,  verging  on  unutterable  despair, 
which   urged   on  both  philosopher   and  priest  to 
propound  their  remedies,  to  indicate  the  sacrifice, 
the  ritual,  the  abstinence,  the  ascetic  method  by 
which  this  fearful  entail  of  suffering  might  be  cut 
off.     To  an  Oriental  it  was  supreme  good  if  only  The 
he  could  be  sure  that  he  would  sink  at  death  once  g(iT"^S^ 
and  for  ever  into  the  ocean  of  Being,  and  not  be 
constrained  by  overwhelming  fate  to  itinerate  again 
and  again  the  melancholy  cycle  of  birth,  disappoint- 
ment, and  death.     He  would  have  been  content  if 
only  it  had  been  appointed  for  him  "  once  to  die." 
It  was  supposed  that  the  only  wav  of  deliver-  The 

*  ^  _  .  supposed 

ance  from  the  domain  of  death  was  unity  of  soul  J^J  ^^ 

•'  deliverance 

with  the  true  mode  of  being,  with  Atman  (Brahma).  doTai^of 
The  soul  must  not  dwell  in  the  region  of  plurality,  ^^^^' 
but  must,  in  shuffling  off  the  body,  allow  con- 
sciousness to  be  extinguished,  and  so  put  on  the 
nature  of  Brahma  himself.  *'  The  mode  of  action  " 
{Karma)  pursued  here  on  earth  was  supposed  to 
determine  the  course  which  the  soul  would  pursue 


20  Buddhism. 


from  one  state  of  being  to  another.  Yet  this  form 
of  moral  retribution  was  not  so  much  ^n  open 
secret,  as  a  profound  mystery  spoken  by  men  of 
mark  to  each  other.  It  was  complicated  by  the 
distaste  which  the  entire  philosophy  cast  on  action 
Undisturbed  of  any  kind,  good  or  evil.  The  infinite  Brahma 
S'e*  wghest  ^^^  above  all  characteristics,  and  the  highest  felicity 
feUcity.  £yj.  ^^^  ^g^g  imaged  in  the  depth  of  undisturbed 
sleep,  when  he  loses  all  desire  and  all  vision,  and  is 
beyond  the  reach  of  pleasure  or  pain.  Sometimes 
these  ancient  teachers  emphasized  the  obliteration 
of  all  desire,  and  at  other  times  the  possession  of 
the  knowledge  that  there  is  no  finite  self  at  all. 
Desire  corresponds  with  ignorance  of  this  highest 
reality,  a  knowledge  of  it  corresponds  with  the 
extinction  of  desire. 

So  far  Brahminical  systems  of  thought  had  gone 

in    the   sixth   century  before   Christ,  and   before 

Gautama       Gautama  began  his  meditations.     This  remarkable 

found  the 

problem        teachor   found   the   problem   ready  to   his   hand, 

ready  to  his  x  .*  7 

SedTt^  and  pursued  it   further.     He  did  not  create  the 

th?Bmh-^  central  ideas  which  he  and  his  followers  repeated 

^stemithat  with  wcarisomo   iteration.     He   gave  a  new  and 

before.  weird  olovatiou  to  man,  by  removing  out  of  his 


path  and  from  the  range  of  his  contemplations 
the  deities  innumerable  who  were  believed  by 
his  contemporaries  to  contribute  to  emancipation 
The  gods  themselves  were  stamped  for  him  with 
the  character  of  impermanenoe  and  ignorance  and 


Buddhism,  21 


passion,  and  man  was  left  alone  to  fight  this 
tremendous  battle  with  sorrow  and  death,  by  an  at- 
tainment of  a  knowledge  not  yet  secured  by  them. 

At  tbis  point  of  our  review,  one  of  the  superficial 
but  startling  resemblances  in  the  evolution  of  Buddh- 
ism and  Christian  faith  makes  its  appearance. 

Buddha  certainly  took  up  the  burning  question  Buddha's 
of  the  existing  schools  of  thought,  and  gave  them  departure 
as  we  shall  see  a  new  departure.     He  waved  his 
hand  over  the  mythologies  and  gods  of  the  popular 
faith,  and  they  disappeared  into  the  formless  chaos. 
He  met  the  desires  of  men  after  the  condition  of 
freedom  from  the  curse  of  existence,  by  reducing 
existence  itself  to  non-existence,  and  by  dispensing 
with  all  aid  from  the  popular  mythology.     The  He  reduced 
differences  between  men,  which  made  so  startling  ^^^^^^^ 
a  barrier  between  man  and  woman,  between  race  "l^m^n^e. 
and  race,  caste  and  caste,  he  theoretically  disposed 
of,  by  reducing  them  all  to  insignificance. 

Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  initiated  a  new  departure  our  Lord's 

new 

on  ground  alreadv  hallowed  by  Revelations  of  the  departure 

o  ^  J  was  on 

Infinite  One,  but  He  did  not  effect  this  change  by  Slowed  by 
drawing  an  impenetrable  veil  over  Jehovah's  face,  JlvSaSons. 
but  by  revealing  the  Father,  by  declaring  that  He 
in  whom  all  live  and  have  their  being  is  Impartial 
Holiness  and  Eternal  Love.     He  declared  that  He  He  revealed 

the  Father 

and  the  Father  were  one.  He  called  upon  men  ^gd^is 
to  believe  in  the  Father  as  their  Father.  He  SS 
assured  men  that  the  Lord  of  heaven  and  earth 


22 


Buddhism. 


God  reveals 
Eif  secrets 
to  babes. 

Self-siir- 
render  to 
God's  will 
gives  a  man 
to  himself. 


Chriit  gave 
a  new 
meaning  to 
souls. 


Buddha 
turned 
aaen's  eyes 
away  from 
the  sorrows 
of  life ; 

Christ  took 
them  away 
by  bearing 
them. 


rhe  deaths 
of  Buddha 
and  Christ. 


revealed  the  deepest  secrets  even  to  babes  This 
was  a  truth  that  Buddha  with  his  emphasis  on 
the  virtues  of  knowledge  utterly  missed.  Moral 
surrender  to  a  perfectly  holy  and  loving  will  gave 
a  man  to  himself.  Not  by  under  estimating  the 
reality  of  self,  but  by  conferring  upon  it  an  infinite 
value  and  significance,  did  Jesus  free  those  who 
believed  in  Him  from  the  greatest  burden ;  not  the 
burden  of  existence,  but  the  burden  of  sin.  Jesus 
Christ  abolished  distinctions,  not  by  emphasizing 
the  unreality  of  souls,  but  by  investing  all  souls 
with  a  new  meaning,  which  in  itself  was  more  to 
be  desired  than  all  the  temporary  and  vanishing 
shadows  of  earthly  greatness.  Buddha  turned 
men's  eyes  away  from  the  sorrows  of  life.  He 
would  have  men  think  them  out  of  existence  by 
a  species  of  intellectual  training.  Christ  took  all 
our  sorrows  and  sickness  and  death  upon  Himself, 
that  He  might  take  them  away;  and  He  pro- 
nounced His  benediction  on  the  poverty,  the 
mourning,  the  hunger,  the  sorrow,  the  death,  which 
are  the  handmaids  to  the  soul,  in  its  passage  inta 
the  perfect  life. 

4.  A  further  superficial  resemblance  between 
the  Buddha  and  the  Christ,  is  the  prominence  given 
in  either  system  to  the  Death  of  the  Founders. 
Throughout   Buddhadom   the   death   (commonly^ 


^  Dr.   Rliys   Davids.     Doctrine  of    Nirvana,  Buddhitnif  pp. 
110-123  ;   aud  Hibbeit  Lectures,   Lecture  ui. 


Buddhism.  23 


though  perhaps  wrongly  regarded  as  the  Nirvana)  of  The  death 
Gautama  is  taken  as  the  starting-point  of  the  new  ^1^?^^^^, 
faith.    He  had  been  the  living  Head  of  his  disciples  jg^  * 
to  whom  all  difficulties  were  referred,  by  whom  the 
faithful  were  exhorted  and  directed  in  the  smallest 
matters  affecting  their  daily  conduct  or  their  mutual 
government,  their  dress,  food,  gesture,  and  minutest 
habit.  His  departure  by  death  would  naturally  leave 
an  awful  blank.     His  death  when  it  came  was  as  The 

Bublumtv  oi 

sublime   as    that   of    Socrates,   and   through    the  *^  ^^^ 

various  legends  and  amplifications  of  the  narrative 

we  can  discern  some  of  its  real  features.     At  a 

great  age,  having  spent  some  fifty  years  in  constant 

preaching  and  teaching,  his  mental  faculties  un- 

dimmed,  he  reached  a  grove  outside  Kusinag&ray 

and  rested  for  the  last  time.  . 

At  the  river,  feeling  that  he  was  dying,  he 
received  food  from  his  disciples,  and  promised  them 
great  reward  in  a  future  life  for  this  act  of  piety. 
He  spoke  of  his  burial,  and  rules  to  be  followed  by 
his  order.  Ananda  wept  as  he  saw  the  end  drawing 
near,  and  Gautama  said, — 

'•  0  !  Ananda,  do  not  let  yourself  be  troubled,  do  not  weep.  His  last 
Have  I  not  told  you  that  we  must  part  from  all  we  hold  most  ^°™** 
dear  and  pleasant  ?  No  being  however  born  or  put  together  can 
nvorcome  the  dissolution  inherent  in  it ;  no  such  condition  can 
exist.  For  a  long  time,  Ananda,  you  have  been  very  near  to 
nie  by  kindness  in  act  and  word  and  thoughtfulness.  You  have 
always  done  well ;  persevere,  and  you  shall  be  quite  free  from 
the  thirst  of  life,  this  chain  of  ignorance."  Afterwards  he  said, 
'•  You  may  perhaps  be  given  to  think  'the  word  is  ended  now 


24 


Bvddhism. 


our  Teacher  is  gone,'  but  you  must  nut  think  so.  After  I  am 
dead  let  the  Law  and  the  rules  of  the  Oilier  be  a  Teacher  to 
you."  "JVIendicauts,  I  now  impress  it  upon  you,  the  parta 
and  powers  of  man  must  be  dissolved ;  work  out  your  own 
salvation  with  diligence." 


His  mental 
state  as  he 


away. 


These  were  the  last  words  spoken  by  Gautama 
Buddha.  Studiously  and  stedfastly  refusing  to 
answer  the  question  as  to  any  personal  continuity  of 
his  own  being  after  death,  and  in  a  mental  state  of 
utter  self-negation  rather  than  of  reconcilement 
with  any  power,  or  fate,  or  Being  above  him  or 
beyond  him,  he  passed  away.  He  lived  and  died 
a  Hindii,  saturated  with  Hindii  philosophy  and 
ethic,  yet  giving  to  both  a  more  practical  form 
No  thought  than  they  had  already  received.  The  company  of 
resurrection  his  disciples  uover  dreamed  even  of  his  resurrection 
in  any  form,  material  or  etherial.  So  entirely  had 
he  realized  his  own  ideal  of  knowledge,  and  the 
quenching  of  the  thirst  for  life,  that  he  believed 
that  he  was  henceforth  exempt  from  the  curse  of 
any  further  itineration  of  the  cycle  of  birth  and 
death.  There  were  no  elements  of  character  (Karma) 
to  be  gathered  once  more  into  the  form  of  man  or 
deva  or  riat  (angel).  He  had  absolutely  vanished. 
His  body  was  burned  on  the  funeral  pile,  and  his 
ashes  were  distributed  (according  to  the  legend) 
among  his  celebrated  followers  of  high  rank. 
Topes,  or  mausolea  were  erected  over  them.  The 
/  mendicant  order  he  founded  took  fresh  lease  of 
life,  and  dating  from  his  august  departure,  it  took 


ever 
occurred 
to  his 
disciples, 


Buddhism,  25 


the  form  which  has  to  some  extent  been  observed 
to  the  present  day. 

His  death  was  a  notable  event  in  the  history  of  ™e  g^^*Jt, 
Buddhism,  as  the  hour  when  a  complete  and  final  5?sloSn 
dissolution  of  the  personality  of  Buddha  took  place.   Jersonaiit^' 
Buddha  in  death  received  final  manumission  from 
the  servitude  and  cycle  of  change,  the  repetition  of 
birth  and  death.     Such  repetition  is  the  primal 
curse  of  all  existent  beings,  but  was  evaded  in  his 
case  by   the   cessation   of   every  desire,   and  his 
perfect  knowledge  of  the  causes  of  suffering,  and 
the  way  to  escape  from  them.     He  is  not,  in  any  I 
sense  in  which  the  idea  of  existence  can  be  pre-  ' 
dicated  by  western  mind.     This  is  his  crown  of 
supreme  glory.     The  moment  when  his  knowledge 
obtained  this  lofty  fruition  of  its  interminable  strife, 
was  that  from  which  Buddhadom  originates.     The 
method  was    revealed,   the    example    given,   the 
triumph   secured.      His   objective   death  was  the  His 

.  ,  ,.         .         -        objective 

startmg-pomt  of  a  subjective  immortality  in  the  <ieath  th* 
hearts  of  his  followers.    The  absolute  completeness  ELti,' 
of  his  death  was,  therefore,  a  reason  for  the  highest  inte*^"*^ 
satisfaction  of   his   followers;    and  the   aspect   it  foUowws^' 
assumes  in  the  legends  of  many  nations  invests  it 
with  consummate  interest. 

The  legends  of  China  and  Tibet  expand  and 
adorn  the  story  of  the  death  and  cremation  of 
Buddha,  and  help  to  show  how  entirely  superficial 
is  the  resemblance  between  the  deaths  of  Buddha 


26 


Pvddhiam, 


The  death 
of  the  Son 
of  God  the 
ro-com- 


and  of  Christ,  in  their  effects  upon  their  respective 
followers.  The  death  of  the  Son  of  God  was  an 
event  which,  hy  its  stupendous  importance,  had  an 
effect  upon  the  whole  universe,  not  by  the  cessation 
of  His  life  and  the  close  of  His  personality,  but  by 
the  recommencement  of  that  life  in  a  position  of 
supreme  influence  and  actual  power  over  heaven 
and  earth.  He  proceeded  to  fill  and  rule  all  things. 
He  not  only  vanquished  death  for  Himself  by  ] 
voluntarily  submitting  to  it,  with  accompaniments  ! 
of  inconceivable  terror,  though  there  was  no  in- 
herent necessity  for  it,  but  He  took  away,  by 
bearing  it,  the  sting  of  death,  which  is  sin,  for  all 
who  appreciate  and  acquiesce  in  His  redeeming 
love.  His  death  did  not  proceed  from  the  im- 
permanence  of  the  corporeity  He  bore,  but  was 
for  the  sins  of  the  race  whose  nature  He  had 
voluntarily  assumed.  The  perpetuity  of  His 
spiritual  power  and  the  continuity  of  His  life  was 


of  His  life 
in  a  position 
of  supreme 
influence 
and  power. 


His  death 

voluntary 

and 

BacrifidaL 


The 
pei-petuity 

power  and 
the  contin- 
uity of  His 
life  mani- 
fested by 
His 
resurrection. 


made  manifest  to  men  by  the  fact  of  His  resurrec-  I 
tion,  and  a  new  revelation  was  thus  given  to  man  ^ 
of  the   nature  of  the  spiritual  body  and  of  the 
eternal  life. 

Buddha  persisted  unto  death  in  his  belief  that 
the  final  dissolution  of  his  body  closed  for  ever  the 
career  of  individuality  for  himself,  and  opened  up 
the  way  in  which  his  followers  might  reach  a 
similar  consummation.  Christ  laid  down  His  life 
that  He  might  take  it  again,  and  convinced  man- 


Btuldhism.  27 


kind  that  death  was  not  the  end,  but  rather  the  chnst's 

^  death  the 

beginning  of  an  endless  life,  not  only  for  Himself  ^^^g°^j^fg°* 
but  for   all   who   love   His   appearing.     So   that  ^^^'/i^^ems 
though  there  are  many  superficial  resemblances  in  a-ppean^s- 
the  bearing  of  the  death  of  Christ   and   that  of 
Buddha  upon  their  respective  followers,  these  ap- 
parent resemblances  are  illusory  in  the  extreme. 

5.  Another  resemblance  between  the  two  systems 
is  that  both  profess  to  rest  upon  a  supreme  law  of  life, 
which  affects  the  entire  universe.  The  Dharma  Jf^^B^'^^JJ^'! 
(or  Dhamma)  which  is  "the  law"  of  Buddha 
occupies  a  place  of  high  importance.  Next  to  his 
own  great  personality  in  the  esteem  of  his  followers, 
is  the  "  word  "  that  he  uttered  for  their  guidance. 
To  proclaim  the  discovery  made  by  the  sage,  "  to  '^^^  '°'" 
turn  the  wheel  of  the  law,"  to  insist  upon  "  the  afEect^ifo 
four  noble  truths,"  and  to  press  the  moral  injunc-  worlds, 
tions  involved  in  them,  is  the  chief  function  of 
the  disciples  of  Buddha.  These  "  truths  "  do  not 
simply  affect  human  and  contemporary  life,  but  all 
life  in  all  worlds,  and  in  all  the  forms  of  existence, 
human  and  divine,  angelic  and  animal,  past,  present, 
and  future.  They  are  not  m  themselves  a  cos- 
mology or  psychology,  they  involve  no  theory  of 
the  origin  or  end  of  things,  or  any  philosophy  of 
soul,  as  distinct  from  body,  or  any  theological 
deliverance ;  and  yet  they  lay  the  foundation  for 
speculation  on  all  these  subjects,  which  the  fol- 
lowers of  Buddha  are  not  slow  to  utilize. 


TSb  Buddhism. 


Perhaps  the  simplest  form  in  which  the  more 
central  teaching  of  Gautama  can  be  presented,  is 
preserved  in  the  sermon  preached  by  him  at 
Benares,  after  he  had  received  the  great  illumina- 
tion under  the  Bo- tree  and  was  recognized  as 
Buddha. 

The  First  Truth. 

The  sacred  "This,  oh  monks,  is  the  sacred  tinith  of  sufifering  :  Birth  is 

suffering.  suffering,  o' '  asje  is  suffering,  sickness  is  suffering,  death  is 
suffering,  t*..  -.-  united  with  the  unloved  is  suffering,  to  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  loved  is  suffering,  not  to  obtain  what  one  desires 
b  suffering,  the  fivefold  clinging  to  the  earthly  [i.e.,  hankering 
after  corporeal  form,  sensations,  perceptions,  conformations, 
and  also  after  consciousness  itself]  is  suffering." 

The  prevalence,  the  universal  presence  of  thwarted 
desires,  the  fact  of  pain,  the  fact  that  wherever 
there  are  the  conditions  of  self- consciousness  in 
this  or  other  worlds,  there  is  pain — this  is  the 
imper-         "  first  truth."     Impermanence  by  itself  is  the  iu- 

manence  the  ^  •' 

ibiTsou?^  exhaustible  source  of  suffering,  and  it  is  the  indis- 
3f  suflenng.  pg^gabie  Condition  of  all  that  is.  No  thinker  ever 
came  to  such  an  irrevocable  judgment  on  the 
misery  of  existence  in  all  worlds.  The  youth  with 
his  visions  of  bliss,  the  gorgeous  insect  fluttering 
in  the  sunbeam,  the  deva  drinking  his  chalice  of 
joy,  the  king  on  his  throne,  are  all  cherishing 
infinite  delusion,  if  they  do  not  see  the  near  ap- 
proach of  suffering.  Behind  the  sorrowful  present 
lies  a  measureless  sorrowful  past,  and  an  equally 
immeasurable  future  full  of  sorrows  for  him  who 
does  not  put  an  end  to  sorrow. 


Bvddhism.  29 


The  following  most  pathetic  passage  is  quoted 
by  Oldenberg  from  Samynttaka  Nikaya : 

"The  pilgrimage  of  beings  has  its  beginning  in  eternity.  No 
opening  can  be  discovered  from  which  proceeding  creatures 
mazed  in  ignorance,  fettered  by  a  thirst  for  being,  can  stray  and 
wander.  What  think  ye,  my  disciples,  whether  is  more — the 
water  that  is  in  the  four  great  oceans,  or  the  tears  which  have 
flowed  from  you  while  ye  strayed  and  wandered  on  this  long 
pilgrimage,  and  sorrowed  and  wept  because  that  was  your 
portion  which  ye  abhorred,  and  that  which  ye  loved  was  not 
your  portion ! " 

The  so-called  gods  are  all  bound  by  the  chain  of 
desire,  and  so  are  brought  under  the  power  of  Mara, 

"Man  gathers  flowers,  his  heart  is  set  on  pleasure,  Death 
comes  upon  him  like  the  floods  of  water  on  a  village  and  sweeps 
him  away." 

This  perception  of  the  poignant  sorrow  of  the  J^J,^?^  ®' 
universe  pervades  Buddhist  literature  from  end  to  J-e^pc^JSng 
end ;  not,  however,  in  the  sense  of  being  reconciled  of^he"'''^ 
or  resigned  to  such  fate,  nor  exactly  in  the  spiiit 
wherewith  great  Christian  moralists  have  bewailed 
the  misery  of  man,  but  rather  in  the  tone  of  lofty 
pity  for  those  who  have  not  made  the  discovery. 

The  Second  Sacred  or  Noble  Truth  is  that  The  origin 

of  suftenng. 

of  the  origin  of  suffering^  and  this  Buddha  has 
declared  to  be 

"  the  thirst  (for  being)  which  leads  from  birth  to  birth,  together 
with  lust  and  desire,  which  find  gratification  here  and  there, 
the  thirst  for  pleasure  and  the  thirst  for  power." 

The  Third  Sacred  Truth  is  that  of 

ihe  extinction  of  suffering  ;   the  extin 
jiplete  annihilation  of  desire,  letting  i 
rating  oneself  from  it,  giving  it  no  room. 


"the  extinction  of  mffering  ;   the  extinction  of  this  thirst  by    The 
complete  annihilation  of  desire,  letting  it  go,  expelling  it,  sepa-    ^f  suffering 


30 


Buddhism. 


The 

connection 
between  the 
two  truths. 


Conscious- 
ness and 
corporeal 
form  con- 
ditions of 
each  other's 
activity. 


The  six 
fields. 


Contact. 
Sensation. 


Thirst 


The  connection  between  these  two  "  truths  "  is 
difficult  to  seize,  but  is  thus  explained.  Buddha 
himself  named  two  links  as  preceding  consciousness 
itself,  but  they  are  not  easy  to  understand.  Taking, 
however,  bare  consciousness  of  any  individual  as  a 
starting-point  he  regarded  corporeal  form  and  name 
as  an  inevitable  consequence  of  it,  and  he  also  laid 
it  down  that  consciousness  and  corporeal  form 
were  reciprocal  to  each  other, — mutual  conditions 
of  one  another's  activity.  They  lean  upon  one 
another,  as  two  bundles  of  sticks  mutually  support 
each  other.  The  death  of  one  corporeal  being  sets 
the  consciousness  element  free  for  the  formation  of 
another.  The  next  links  are  as  follows  :  from  the 
consciousness  and  corporeal  form  come  the  six 
fields  (i.e.,  the  five  senses  and  the  understanding), 
with  their  corresponding  objects.  From  the  six 
fields  comes  "contact/^  and  from  contact  comes 
" sensationy'  [and  in  a  strange  way  the  old  sage 
endeavoured  to  account  for  what  we  term  "per- 
ception" and  "conception;"  but  let  this  pass]— 
"from  sensation  arises  thirst."  It  is  this  thirst  and 
longing  for  sensation  that  leads  to  rebirth,  the  most 
fruitful  cause  of  suffering,  for  from  "  thirst "  comes 
"  clinging."  As  flame  clings  to  fuel,  which  can  never 
be  extinguished  until  the  fuel  is  consumed,  so  the 
flame  of  our  consciousness  presses  on  from  life  to  life, 
by  transmigration,  from  earth  to  hell,  from  hells  to 
heavens.     The  slightest  clinging  prevents  deliver- 


Buddhism,  31 


ance,  and  only  by  utter  cessation  of  clinging  is  the 
soul  delivered  from  sinful  and  suffering  existence. 

The  question  arises,  Whence  comes  consciousness  ?  The  source 

of  con- 
It  proceeds  from  Karma  (Kamma  Pali),  the  moral  Bciousness. 

retribution  of  the   entire  action  of  a  man's  past 

state.     His  ignorance  in  a  previous  birth  of  the 

consequences  of  his  thirst  and  clinging,  produces 

the  conditions   under   which   consciousness   takes 

new  name  and  (fresh)  corporeal  form  in  this  present 

state  of  his  beiner.     This  Karma  forces,  or  forms,  The  re-con- 

^  '  '    stitution  of 

or  reconstitutes  being  in  the  five  regions  of  trans-  Klrraa^m 
migration.     It  does  not  follow  that  men  reappear  re|io^n7of 

.1  1  .1  1  !•  1  transforma- 

as  men,  they  may  become  animals,  gobnns,  devas,   tion. 

gods.     The  glories  of  the  heaven-life  into  which 

some  men's  karma  causes  a  new  individuality  to 

enter,   are   dazzling    or    satisfying.      Dread   and 

ghastly  is  the  agony  of  the  hells  into  which  the 

karma   of   others   causes   other   individualities  to 

appear.     It  would  seem  as  if  the  thirst  for  rebirth 

in   some   particular  form  of  being  had   also  (on 

Buddhistic  theory)  to  do  with  the  result ;  but  it 

may  and  must  happen  that  by  securing  any  form 

of  new  birth,  the  soul  is  still  chained  and  fettered 

by  the  miserable  cycle  that  it  has  to   itinerate. 

The  extinction  of  the  thirst  which  leads  to  the  nro-  The  extino- 

^  tion  of 

pagation  and  perpetuation  of  life,  the  annihilation  onWa^ 
of   the   clinging,   is   the   only   way    of   obtaining  SeUveSsr 
deliverance  from  the  misery  of  existence.  SS^of 

The  Fourth  Sacred  Truth  teaches  the  path  ^^  "^' 


32 


Buddhism. 


The  path 
to  the 
extinction 
of  suffering. 


five  pro- 
hibitions. 


The 

significance 
of  the  pro- 
hibitions. 


to  the  extinction  of  suffering,  tlie  method  by  which 
Buddhistic  teachers  have  expanded  the  fundamental 
ideas  of  their  founder.     The  path  includes  : — 

(1)  Right  belief  (views). 

(2)  Right  feelings  (or  resolves). 

(3)  Right  actions. 

(4)  Right  living  (or  mode  of  livelihood). 

(5)  Right  exertion  (or  endeavour). 

(6)  Right  thought  (or  memory). 

(7)  Right  meditation  (or  self -concentration). 
These  paths,  blending  into  one,  are  continually 

illustrated  by  parable,  dialogue,  fable,  apologue, 
and  by  the  numberless  stories  of  Buddha,  not  only 
while  passing  through  the  final  stage  of  his  exist- 
ence, but  in  hundreds  of  previous  existences,  during 
which  his  Karma  was  dwindling,  and  the  necessity 
of  a  further  rebirth  gradually  becoming  anni- 
hilated. 

This  code  is  moreover  re-shaped  for  practical 
use  in  the  form  of  five  prohibitions  :  (1)  to  kill 
no  living  thing ;  (2)  to  lay  no  hand  on  the  pro- 
perty of  another  ;  (3)  not  to  touch  another's  wife  ; 
(4)  not  to  speak  what  is  untrue  ;  (5)  not  to  drink 
intoxicants.  Tbese  prohibitions,  four  of  which 
closely  correspond  with  the  law  of  the  second  table 
of  the  decalogue,  are  interpreted  to  mean  far  more 
than  the  bare  restraint  from  some  definite  action. 
The  first  leads  to  most  careful  avoidance  of  any 
known  sacrifice  of  life,  and  is  probably  based  upon 


Buddhism.  '*ili 


tlie  increment  of  suffering  involved  in  the  origina- 
tion of  a  new  life,  not  on  the  sanctity  of  life  itself. 
As  far  as  human  life  is  concerned,  it  is  made  to 
cover  much  that  was  expressed  in  our  Lord's  inter- 
pretation of  the  sixth  commandment.  The  second 
injunction  corresponds  with  the  seventh  command- 
ment, and  as  far  as  monks  are  concerned  prohibits 
all  sexual  intercourse  whatever.      The   stronsrest  The  spirit  of 

forgiveness, 

.  emphasis  is  laid  upon  the  spirit  of  forgiveness  and  ^^'jiasised 
abstinence  from  enmity  and  calumnious  conversa- 
tion, on  extinction  of  impure  thought  and  desire, 
'-nd  on  meekness  in  receiving  cruel  wrong. 

It  must  be  carefully  noted  that  the  duties  of 
the  moral  code  are  confined  entirely  to  those  of 
the  second  table  ;  and  that  there  are  no  hints  of  the  no  hints 
principle  of  love  to  others,  save  as  the  expression  principle 
of  the  desire  to  surmount  and  extinguish  all  desire,  °^^®'^- 
including  desire  for  the  welfare  of  others.     There 
is  no  room  in-  this  method  of  deliverance  for  the 
little  child  or  the  guilty  sinner ;  nor  is  there  the  no  hint  oi 
faintest  hint  of  help  from  any  hisrher  source  than  ^^y  ^^s^^^ 

^  •'         *-"  source. 

self  to  enable  the  strongest  spirit  to  attain  even  the 
mysterious  rest  which  is  set  forth  as  the  highest 
hope  of  mankind. 

The    moral  precepts   which    are    embodied   in  The  moral 

precepts 

Buddhism   simply   correspond   with    those    which  ^^^^^^^ 
are  found  in  the  earliest  teaching  of  Hinduism,  JfoSha 
and  of  the  Egyptian,  Chinese,  and  Parsi  moralists, 
and  must  not  claim  to  be  the  special  patrimony 
D 


34 


Buddhism. 


They  are 
anterior 
to  special 
revelation 
in  the 
Scriptures, 
accompanied 
with  prin- 
ciples and 
motives  and 
connected 
with 
powers 
which  lift 
men  into 
harmony 
with  them. 


The  moral 

culture  of 
Buddhism 
the  vory 
antipodes 
of  the 
spiritual 
culture  of 
Christlauity. 


Misery,  not 
sin,  the  evil 
to  be 
explained 
by  Karma. 


of  Buddha.  They  arc  older  and  deeper  than  any 
civilization,  and  anterior  to  all  special  revelation, 
written  or  unwritten.  They  are  enshrined  in  the 
decalogue,  and  in  the  teaching  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ ;  hut  in  hoth  these  revelations  they  are 
accompanied  with  principles  and  motives,  and 
associated  with  powers  which  lift  man  into 
harmony  with  them. 

It  is  not  by  any  means  clear  how  the  thirst  of 
the  soul  can  be  annihilated  by  these  paths  of  moral 
obedience,  or  by  any  recognition  of  the  universality 
of  suffering. 

The  contrast  between  the  Gospel  of  Christ's 
salvation  and  the  law  of  Buddha's  deliverance  is 
so  great  that  words  cannot  measure  it.  The  moral 
culture  which  schools  the  mind  into  utter  passivity 
and  indifference  to  all  things  and  persons  is  the 
very  antipodes  of  the  spiritual  culture  which  loves 
and  blesses  all  the  works  of  God,  which  embraces 
all  souls,  and  is  reconciled  to  the  Supreme  Will. 

Misery,  rather  than  sin,  is  the  evil  supposed  to 
be  explained  by  the  theory  of  Karma.  Moral 
suicide,  not  of  the  bodily  life,  but  of  the  very 
possibility  of  reconstruction,  and  consequent  deliver- 
ance from  the  misery  of  existence  is  the  great 
achievement  of  the  Buddhist  rigime. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  terrible  evil  of  trans- 
migration, which  was  accepted  by  the  Oriental 
mind  as  beyond  the  range  of  scepticism  or  question, 


Bvddhiam,  35 


was  a  very  real  and  haunting  terror.     Althougli  Traus- 

•'  o  <-j        migration 

the  idea  of  conscious  continuity  of  being  after  Jg^o"'^*^^^ 
death,  or  any  remembrance  of  a  previous  existence, 
was  ignored,  if  not  categorically  denied  by  Buddha, 
and  although  the  Brahminical  conception  of 
ultimate  absorption  and  loss  of  personality  in  the 
Supreme  Self,  in  Brahma,  ceased  to  influence  his 
mind  or  affect  his  disciples,  yet  he  could  not  divest 
himself  or  them  of  the  fact  of  transmigration.  So  ^g^on^*-f 
he  sought  to  reconcile   the  two  notions,  the  old  aS^St^ii*^^ 


ancestral  creed  with  his  idea  of  deliverance;  and  Sfid^of 
he  did  so,  by  supposing  that  every  form  of  evil 
in  this  and  other  worlds,  in  heaven  and  hell,  is 
the  outcome  or  karma  of  the  life  lived  previously  by 
some  unenlightened  being  who  had  not  pursued  the 
paths  of  deliverance.  There  were  four  of  these  paths 
or  stages  of  the  path  which  were  enumerated. 

(1)  Conversion,  or   enterinar   on  the   stream    in  Beginning 

^    '  '  °  ^  of  freedom 

which  a  man  becomes  free  from  the  delusion  of  JgiJ^g^J^® 
self,  from  doubt  as  to  Buddha  himself,  from  con-  °'  ^"• 
fidence   in  mere  rite  and   ceremony.      Even  this 
first  stage  is  better  than  universal  empire,  better 
than  the  prolongation  of  conscious  life  in  heaven. 

(2)  The  path  of  those  who  will  only  return  to  the  The  path  oi 

\    /  -^  -^  "  those  who 

world  once  more  is  secured  by  those  who  have  re-  ^^^S/ald 

duced  to  a  minimum  lust,  hatred,   and  delusion.  ^^S^mum, 

Even  if  there  be  this  minimum  of  clinging  to  the  only  return 

sources   of   all  misery, — one   new   life  here   will  once  mom 
await  them. 


86 


Buddhism. 


The  path  of 
those  in 
whom  all 
self  seeking 
and  wrong 
feeling  are 
ex- 
tiuguisiied. 


The  path 
of  the 
veritable 
saint. 


Nirvana  or 
the  absolute 
peace  aud 
rest  of  the 

A.KEAT. 


(3)  The  path  of  those  who  will  never  return  to  this 
world  is  one  in  which  all  desire  for  self  or  wrong 
feeling  for  others  is  extinguished,  and  at  death 
their  karma  may  produce  some  being  in  some  of 
the  upper  worlds. 

(4)  The  final  path  of  the  veritable  saint,  or  Arhat, 
is  that  which  has  lost  even  the  faintest  clinging 
to  existence,  or  feeblest  desire  for  it,  in  this  or 
other  worlds,  and  absolute  freedom  from  all  pride, 
self-righteousness,  and  ignorance. 

This  condition  of  mind  and  state  of  will  into 
which  a  man  is  brought  by  these  saintly  processes 
is,  according  to  Oldenberg,  Rhys  Davids,  and  others, 
Nirvana.  In  defining  the  term,  they  maintain 
that  it  is  not  the  condition  into  which  God  or  man 
is  brought  after  dissolution  ;  it  is  not  the  synonym 
for  "  heaven ; "  it  is  not  the  equivalent  for  anni- 
hilation; but  it  is  the  term  which  denotes  the 
absolute  peace  and  rest  of  the  Arhat,  before  the 
mystery  of  the  grave  is  faced.  Numerous  passages 
are  quoted  from  the  Suttas,  in  which  Nirvana  is 
promised  to  the  devotee  who  has  conquered  sin  by 
holiness,  who  has  become  utterly  free  from  desire, 
and  so  it  is  set  forth  as  the  extinction  of  the  sinful 
grasping  condition  of  mind  and  heart  which  would 
otherwise  he  the  cause  of  another  individual  existence. 
It  is  a  blowing  out  of  the  fires  of  lust,  anger,  ignor- 
ance, and  selfishness.  It  is  i\iQ  perfect  peace.  When 
an  Arhat  has  reached   this  exalted  state  before 


Budd/dam.  37 


death,  he  still  retains  the  Skandhas  as  they  are  The  Arhat 

•^  who  has 

called,  the  bodily  functions  and  powers,  the  issue  of  ^eaS^befoiy 
the  sins  of  his  previous  existences  in  other  indivi-  reTa^s^X 
dualities.    "When  death  supervenes,  these  skandhas  funcfiow 
— being  transitory —  pass  away,  and  there  is  no  more  powew. 
construction   of  an  individuality  in  this   or   any 
other  world.      The  "Karma"  of   untold  lives  is 
dissolved. 


It  is  probable  that  the  idea  expressed  by  the  what  the 
term  Skandha  (the  bodily  functions  and  attributes  dha,  (boduj 

functions 

and   consequent   powers)   included  that  in  which  P^  powers) 

T.  r  /  includes. 

these  inhered,  the  "  form  "  at  least  which  has  held 
them  together,  and  which  remains  even  after  they 
are  scattered  in  the  funeral  pyre. 

The   later   books   gave   the   name   of   Boddhi-  The  Boddu- 

°  sattwa. 

sattwa,  to  those  Arhats  who  had  only  one  more 

life  to  live  in  this  world.     The  heaven  to  which  The  heaven 

of  Maya 

Maya,  the  mother  of  Buddha,  had  gone  at  death,  ^^^ 
was  one  to  which  it  was  believed  by  supernatural  ^^^*- 
trance  Buddha  had  ascended,  and  where  he  held 
communion  with  her. 

Such  a  conception  seems  to  allow  that  there  was  a  continuity 

.  .  .,  ,  ot  existence 

continuity  of  existence  and  consciousness  possible  to  and  con- 

•'  ■••  Bciousness 

Buddhist  saints,  believed  in  even  within  the  orthodox  ^^f^^^lf  tJ* 
communion,  and  among  austere  sects  of  the  ancient  ^^* 
faith.     The  Rev.  Spence  Hardy  and  Mgr.  Bigandet 
strongly  maintain  the  utter  nihilism  of  the  Nirvana 
of  Buddha  himself.     Burnouf  and  others  confirm 
the  same  view,  though  they  suggest  that  Gautama 


38 


Buddhism, 


The  spread 
of  the 
formula  of 
annihila- 
tion. 


Dr.  Rhys 
Davids'  ex- 
planation. 


is  the  last  mighty  spirit  that  has  reached  this 
summum  bonum.  It  seems  incredible  to  us  that  a 
formula  of  utter  annihilation  could  ever  have  made 
the  extraordinary  progress  that  it  did  among 
peoples  who  at  least  believed  in  an  absorption  into 
the  supreme  self  and  eternal  essence,  and  a  trans- 
migration which  did  not  repudiate  the  idea  of  soul. 
Dr.  Rhys  Davids  seems  to  think  that  the  passion  of 
universal  benevolence  involved  in  the  closing  up 
of  one  only  of  the  hitherto  endless  sources  of 
misery  was  sufficient  motive  for  entering  on  the 
path  to  Nirvana,  even  though  the  Buddhist  disciple 
should  hereafter  be  unconscious  of  the  advantage  he 
had  conferred  upon  the  universe  by  his  non-existence. 

The  safest  method  of  understanding  the  problem, 
is  to  separate  the  question  of  Nirvana  from  that 
of  the  continuity  of  the  soul.  Buddha  was  a 
supreme  dogmatist  on  the  nature  of  true  peace, 
and  an  extreme  Agnostic  as  to  the  future  life.  He 
would  suffer  no  disciple  to  deviate  a  hair- breadth 
from  the  path  to  Nirvana,  but  he  repudiated  all 
logical  inferences  drawn  from  the  essential  nature 
of  Nirvana.  No  wonder  that  the  idea  of  Nirvana 
did  in  after  days  develop  into  the  conception  of 
Paradise,  whether  this  latter  was  due  to  Christian 
influences  or  not. 

There  is  a  superficial  resemblance  between  the 
sacred  peace  of  the  Buddhist  saint  and  that  of  the 
sanctified  follower  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who 


Buddha's 
dogmatism 
and  agnos- 
ti  3ism. 


The  peace 
of  the 
Buddhist 
and  the 
peace  of  the 
Christian 


Buddhism.  39 


has  lost  his  own  will  in  the  will  of  God.     But  the  The 

'  Christian 

Christian   believer  is   never  so  conscious  of  and 


united  to 
Christ  as  a 
member  to 
a  body. 


aware  of  his  own  existence  as  when  he  loses  it  in 
Christ's.  Faith  at  its  best  is  union  with  Christ, 
but  it  is  the  union  of  a  member  with  a  body. 
The  "  I  '*  and  "  thou  "  are  not  abolished  relations. 
Perfect  love  casts  out  fear,  but  the  distinction 
between  the  object  and  subject  of  a  supreme 
affection  will  endure  for  ever.  "  Eternal  life,"  by  Etemai 
the  very  form  and  inner  meaning  of  the  idea,  is  logical  cod. 

.  ^  tradictory 

the  logical  contradictory  of  Nirvana.  of  Nirvana 

Buddhist  peace  is  the  obliteration  of  desire ; 
Christian  peace  the  refinement  and  satisfaction 
of  desire.  The  Buddhist  saint  conquers  all 
his  longings  and  regrets ;  the  Christian  ex- 
claims, "  My  earnest  expectation  and  desire 
are  that  Christ  may  be  magnified  in  my 
body  whether  by  life  or  death."  The  peace  The  source 
of  the  Christian  flows  from,  and  is  the  result  of  the 
of,  reconciliation  and  acceptance  with  God  through 
faith  in  Jesus  Christ. 

6.  There  is  a  striking  external  resemblance 
between  the  Society  (Church)  founded  by  our  Lord, 
and  the  Society  (Sangha)  originated  by  Gautama 
Buddha.  These  resemblances  are  most  of  all 
conspicuous  in  the  complicated  hierarchy  of  the 
Papal  Church,  and  a  multitude  of  religious  orders 
pledged  to  a  more  or  less  rigid  loyalty  to  its 
principles  and  precepts. 


Christian. 


40 


Buddhism. 


Points  of 
Bimilarity 
between  the 
Bociety  of 
Buddha 
aaid  the 
Church. 


The  resem- 
blancefl 
conceal  the 
radical 
divergence 
of  principle 
between  the 
two. 


The  history  of  the  ^'Society"  or  "Order,"  or 
"  Assembly "  of  Buddha,  offers  a  bewildering 
similarity  to  some  of  the  aspects  of  Christendom ; 
so  that  writers  customarily  speak  of  the  "  Church," 
the  "  Councils,"  the  "  Canons,"  "  the  Sacred  Books," 
the  "  Priesthood,"  the  "  Monasteries,"  the  "  Monks 
and  Nuns,"  the  "  Pilgrims  "  the  "  Patriarchs  "  and 
"Pontiffs,"  the  " Missioners."  the  "Heretical  sects," 
the  "  Cathedrals,"  of  Buddhadom.  Rosaries  are 
used  by  the  monks  and  nuns  to  assist  them  to 
recite  their  meditations  and  praises.  Incense  is 
offered  to  sacred  images  of  the  greatest  Buddha,  as 
well  as  to  some  of  the  anticipated  Buddhas  of  the 
future.  A  kind  of  divinity  is  honoured,  consisting 
of  "  the  three  precious  ones" — the  Buddha,  the 
Dharma,  and  the  Sangha,  i.e.,  I.  The  Buddha. 
II.  His  law  or  word.  III.  The  society  which 
embodies  his  principles  and  spirit. 

These  and  many  other  details  of  external  re- 
semblance to  Christian  institutions  conceal  the 
radical  divergence  between  their  respective  prin- 
ciples. The  resemblances  are  not  in  the  funda- 
mental elements  of  thought  or  feeling,  but  in  the 
laws  which  regulate  all  human  society,  and  are 
evolved  more  or  less  wherever  ideas  form  the 
nucleus  of  association  on  a  great  scale.  Chris- 
tianity in  her  essence  cannot  be  credited  with  the 
whole  history  of  the  institutions  which  have  been 
developed  by  her  adherents.    The  enormous  variety 


Buddhism.  41 


of   these   institutions   finds  some  parallels  in  the 
different     development     which     the     Buddhistic 
"  Church ''  has   suffered   in  the   various   oriental 
countries  through  which  these  ideas  have  spread. 
Buddhism,  moreover,  like  Christianity,  has  taken  ideas 

foreign  to 

hold  in  its  passasre  from  land  to  land  of  ideas  that  their  origin 

'■  ^  assunilatcd 

are  foreign  to  its  origin,  but  which  have  received  ^J^^^^ 
such  vast  expansion  and  exercised  so  great  a  hold 
upon  the  Oriental  mind,  that  they  cannot  be  ignored 
in   any   estimate   of   this   extraordinary   form  of 
religious  organization. 

A  brief  sketch  of  this  history  and  of  this  society 
must  here  be  attempted. 

On  the  occurrence  of  Buddha's  death  his  disciples,  Rules  of  the 

^  Buddhist 

scattered  over  many  parts  of  India,  according  to  5°^^^*5Jj^^  , 
tradition,    assembled   to   the    number   of   500   at  ll£l^^^^'' 
Rajagriha,  and  proceeded  to  regulate,  in  harmony 
with  what  they  believed  to  be  their  master's  word, 
the  principles  of  faith  and  order  to  be  hereafter 
observed  by  the  society,  and  to  make  an  authentic 
text    of    his    sayings.      They   professed    only    to  J^«^*  <>'  ^ 
recite    what    they   had    heard   from    the   lips   of 
the   exalted    one,   and   they   called   on    all    new 
adherents   to   "  take   refuge "  in  Buddha,  in  his 
doctrine,  and  in  his  order.     At  first  they  were  all 
mendicant  monks   who  were  centres  of   spiritual 
power  in  their  own  neighbourhood,  but  who  per 
petually  moved  from  place  to  place  (except  during 
the  rainy  season).     They  had   not   the  cohesion 


42 


Buddhism. 


of  early  Christian  churches,  which  from  the 
Apostolic  age  attached  themselves  to  particular 
localities,  and  thus  became  the  centres  of  missionary 
expansion,  and  the  larger  units  of  a  new  brother- 
hood. The  mendicant  disciples  of  Buddha  were 
continually  changing  their  place  of  abode,  and  the 
small  gatherings  of  them  were  never  the  same. 
Consequently  they  differed  among  each  other  as  to 
the  precise  rules  they  were  called  upon  to  adopt. 
One  synod  of  disciples  differed  from  another  synod, 
and  the  greatest  confusion  prevailed.  Patriarchal 
authority,  to  take  the  place  of  Gautama's,  did  not 
emerge  in  India,  though  special  deference  was 
probably  paid  to  those  who  were  known  to  have 
been  the  associates  and  personal  friends  of  the 
great  sage.  But  the  number  of  those  who  sought 
to  enter  the  paths  leading  to  Nirvana  multiplied 
daily,  and  the  initiation  into  the  society  closely 
corresponded  with  the  rules  by  which  a  Brahmin 
devoted  himself  to  an  ascetic  life. 

Candidates  were  to  protest  themselves  free  from 
leprosy,  goitre,  consumption,  and  epilepsy.  What 
a  contrast  is  this  to  the  fellowship  which  accepted 
and  healed  the  leper,  and  cast  out  the  devil !  How 
bitter  the  confession  that  there  was  no  deliverance 
possible  for  some,  and  those  the  most  needy  of  man- 
kind !  They  had,  moreover,  to  show  that  they  were 
twenty  years  of  age,  were  possessed  of  alms-bowl 
and  garments,  and  were  willing  to  submit  to  the 


Migratory 
character 
of  the 
mendicant 
disciples  of 
Buddha. 


Differing 
rules  adop- 
ted by 
various 
synods. 


Rapid 
increase  of 
numbers. 


Qualifica- 
tions of 
candidates. 


Buddhism,  43 


rules.     These  were  (1)  that  they  should  feed  only  Rules  to  be 

^    '  ^    •'  /      Bubmitted 

on  morsels  secured  by  begging;  (2)  that  their  ^• 
clothes  should  be  constructed  of  rags  which  they 
collected ;  (3)  that  their  bed  should  be  under  the 
trees  of  the  forest;  (4)  that  medicine  should  be 
the  urine  of  cattle ;  (5)  that  all  sexual  intercourse 
should  be  absolutely  suspended  ,*(^X  ^^^^  ^^^  theft, 
even  to  a  blade  of  grass,  should  be  repudiated; 
(7)  that  no  life  should  be  taken,  not  even  that  of 
a  worm  or  an  ant. 

These  austere  rules  were  binding  upon  the  ^.™^"^ 
ordained  monk  so  long  as  he  chose.  But  a  monk  {^e^™rw 
might  return  to  the  world,  if  conscious  of  any  long- 
ing even  for  father,  wife,  or  friend,  and  there  would 
then  be  an  end  of  his  hope  of  deliverance  ;  but  so 
long  as  he  was  called  a  Bhikkhu,  he  accepted 
poverty  as  absolutely  as  the  disciples  of  St.  Francis 
did  in  after  days.  The  monk  did  not  look  in  vain 
from  the  benevolent  for  food,  clothing,  or  medicine 
for  the  sick.  The  "order"  of  Buddha  did  not, 
like  the  mediaBval  monks  of  the  West,  cultivate 
the  ground,  nor  did  they  accumulate  property. 

Negligence  in  outer  appearance  and  personal  ^"^**^°^ 
defilement  were  condemned.  The  rags  sewn  Sfe^S.*** 
together  for  garments  were  to  be  washed  and 
dyed;  and  Buddha  did  not  refuse  his  mendi- 
cants the  comfort  of  wearing  robes  when  freely 
given  them,  or  receiving  food  if  offered  them 
in     the    houses    of     the    laity.      The    austerity 


44 


Buddhism, 


Monasteries. 


must  consequently  in  many  cases  have  been 
softened. 

Viharas  or  monasteries  were  erected  by  well- 
wishers,  where  many  conveniences  were  provided 
for  the  "  order/'  especially  in  the  rainy  season. 
Many  of  the  sacred  books  are  occupied  with  the 
rules  for  the  ascetic  life  pressed  into  the  most  in- 
significant detail,  and  fortified  by  some  narrative 
or  apologue,  or  solemn  advice  on  the  subject 
supposed  to  have  been  uttered  by  the  "exalted 
one,"  or  by  one  or  other  of  his  most  venerable 
associates.^ 

The  "worship"  of  the  Buddhist  monks  was 
profoundly  different  from  that  which  prevails  in 
every  other  ancient  faith.  The  entire  process  is 
one  of  self- concentration.  In  the  depth  of  each 
consciousness  the  conflict  and  the  victory  must  take 
place.  Buddha  had  passed  into  Nirvana,  and  at 
all  events  into  absolute  separation  from  his  disciples. 
No  sense  of  his  spiritual  presence  was  allowed  to 
haunt  their  minds.  On  fast  days  mutual  confession 
was  enjoined  upon  the  "  order,"  under  most  solemn 
circumstances.  These  confessions  occurred  once 
a  fortnight,  and  degradation  of  rank  followed  any 


Worship. 


tration. 


Fortnightly 
confeasions. 


^  A  vast  storehouse  of  information  from  the  Sanscrit  author- 
ities as  to  the  Vinaya,  or  discipline,  may  be  found  in  Bumouf, 
Introduction  d  Vllistoive  du  Buddkisme  Indien,  pp.  233-437  ;  in 
Spence  Hardy's  Eastei'n  Monachism ;  and  in  Dr.  R.  Davids' 
translations  from  the  KuUavayya,  Patimokha,  and  Mahavagya, 
Sata-ed  Books  of  the  East,  vols.  xiii.  and  xviL 


Buddhism,  45 


admission  of  having  violated  the  standing  rules. 
Once  a  year  all  the  members,  summoned  to  some  Yearly 

•^  scrutiny  of 

particular  vihara  (or  monastery),  were  accustomed  character, 
severally  to  ask  their  reverend  brethren  whether  any 
of  them  had  seen,  heard,  or  suspected  on  the  part  of 
each  anything  inconsistent  with  their  profession. 

In  very  early  days  they  taught  each  other  es-  prescribed 

visits  to 

pecially  to  visit  and  venerate  the  four  holy  places :  iioiy  piacea 

{a)  where  Gautama  was  born,  {b)  where  he  received 

the  highest  illumination,  {c)  where  he  set  in  motion 

"  the  wheel  of  the  law,"  and  {d)  where  he  entered 

into  Nirvana;  and  so  a  door  was  opened  for  the 

worship  of  other  relics,  and  the  deterioration  of  the 

faith. 

An  order  of  nuns  was  formed,  and  commanded  ^^^^ »' 

'  nuns 

to  follow  closely  the  rules  which  were  imposed  on  »°s*i*^*ed 
monks.     The  striking  peculiarity  discriminating  it  Jj^"^J 
from  Christian  Monasticism,  is  the  utterly  inferior  ^o°^»^ 
rank  and  kind  of  holiness  supposed  to  be  secured 
by  woman,  as  compared  with  man.    The  most  rigid 
separation  of  the  monks  and  nuns  from  each  other 
was  enjoined.     The   number   of  nuns  was  never 
great.     As  H.  Oldenberg  observes,  "  The  thoughts 
and  forms  of  life  of  Buddhism  had  been  thought 
out  and  moulded  solely  by  men  and  for  men." 

The  existence  of  these  orders  of  monks  and  nuns  J^^"^^ 
in  vast  numbers  implied  that  there  was  an  outside  HXk^and' 
world  which  recognized  the  virtue  of  such  religious 
persons  was  ready  to  furnish  them  with  the  food 


46 


Buddhism. 


Institution 
of  cere- 
monial 
indulgences 
at  the 
Council  at 
Vaisali. 

Differences 
of  opinion. 


and  raiment  for  which  they  silently  asked,  and  in 
various  ways  to  contribute  to  their  comfort.  Upon 
this  laity  also  were  urged  the  moral  rules  of  the  order, 
and  for  many  generations  the  adherents  must  have 
been  very  numerous.  How  far  they  blended  this 
new  faith  with  their  old  Hinduism  is  not  clear. 
A  hundred  years  after  the  first  council  of  five 
hundred  disciples,  a  second  was  held  at  Vaisali, 
where  certain  ceremonial  indulgences  were  insti- 
tuted, and  where  great  difference  of  opinion  began 
to  prevail  as  to  the  number  and  nature  of  the 
sacred  books,  and  the  degree  of  austerity  necessary 
to  secure  the  highest  end  of  their  calling. 

About  the  time  of  Alexander's  invasion  of 
Asia,  the  political  changes  then  going  on  in  the 
peninsula  led  to  the  elevation  of  one  race  to  the 
highest  political  eminence.  A  man  who  appears 
to  be  known  in  Greek  history  as  Sandracottus 
(Chandragupta),  seized  the  hegemony  of  the  Indian 
royalties,  and  founded  a  dynasty  at  Magadha, 
almost  geographically  coincident  with  the  district 
now  known  as  Oude.  The  third  succesor  of  Chan- 
dragupta, Piyadasi  by  name,  under  the  honorific 
title  of  Asoka  became  a  devout  Buddhist,  and  per- 
formed prodigies  of  zeal  for  the  diffusion,  protec- 
tion, and  defence  of  the  faith.  He  is  at  once  the 
Constantine,  the  Theodosius,  the  Charlemagne  of 
Buddhadom,  and  his  name  is  honoured  from 
Mongolia  to  Ceylon.     The  adventitious  aid   thus 


Asoka' s 
conversion 
to 

Buddhism 
and  his 
propagation 
and  defence 
of  it. 


Buddhism.  47 


afforded  by  the  secular  power  to  a  spiritual  order  The  aid  of 

-'■  the  secular 

was  "  tlie  first  step  on  its  downward  path,  and  to  Jr^^Jt^^^to 
its  expulsion  from  India/'  Asoka  provided  dagohas  from  fii^!* 
for  the  relics  of  Buddha,  monasteries  and  material 
help  of  all  kinds,  proclaimed  edicts,  and  engraved 
them  on  pillars  which  are  still  to  be  found  in 
Delhi,  Allahabad,  near  Peshawr,  and  at  Babra. 
These  mjnuments  have  been  explored  by  a  race  The 

^  •'  teaching  of 

of  scholars,  showing  that  the  Buddhism  of  Asoka's  J^^  Ryddh- 
time  in  the  main  urged  the  simple  morality  of  the  f^f^ 
earliest  discourses  of  Buddha,  enjoined  obedience 
to  parents,  kindness  to  children,  mercy  to  animals, 
reverence  to  Brahmins  and  to  the  order,  sup- 
pression of  anger  and  lust,  and  the  exercise  of 
tolerance  and  charity.  A  noble  sentence  occurs 
in  Edict  vi.,  on  the  Delhi  pillar : — 

**I  pray  with  every  variety  of  prayer  for  those  who  differ 
from  me  in  creed,  that  they  following  my  proper  example  may 
with  me  attain  unto  eternal  salvation," 

Asoka  called  the  Council  of  Patna,  where  1000  The  „  , 

'  Council  oi 

principal  members  of  the  order  were  assembled.  ^**^ 
These  determined  the  canon  of  the  sacred  books. 
One  of  the  most  eventful  consequences  of  this  The 

^    ^  ^  despatch  of 

council  was  the  despatch  of  missionaries  to  distant  missionanei 

r  to  distant 

regions,  to  proclaim  the  method  of  "  deliverance,**  ««io^«' 
secured  by  Buddha    from    the    miseries   of  the 
universe.     The  names  of  the  most  renowned  of 
these  missionaries  are  preserved.     We  find  they 
went — among  other  outlying  districts — to  Ceylon, 


48 


BuddhisTn. 


King 

Asoka's  son 
sent  to 
Oeylon. 


An  order 
of  nuns 
instituted 
there. 


The  original 
Bible  of 
Buddha- 
dom. 


Thither  King  Asoka's  own  son  Mahinda  was  sent 
between  250  and  230  b.c,  and  there  he  trans- 
lated the  canon  into  the  vernacular  of  the  island. 
The  king  of  Ceylon  was  willing  to  receive  the 
mission,  and  erected  dagobas  over  relics  of 
Buddha,  and  monasteries  for  the  order.  The 
sister  of  Mahinda  accompanied  him,  and  there 
instituted  with  like  enthusiasm  an  order  of  nuns. 
A  portion  of  the  Bo-tree  which  she  planted  is 
still  growing,  the  oldest  historic  tree  in  the  world. 
It  was  in  Ceylon  that  for  the  first  time  about 
88  B.C.  the  three  pifakas  (baskets,  or  collection 
of  treatises)  were  reduced  to  a  written  form.  They 
had  been  preserved  in  the  memories  of  successive 
generations,  just  as  for  centuries  the  Mishna  and 
Gemaras  were  held  in  the  memories  of  the  Rabbis, 
and  as  to  the  present  day,  the  Vedas,  and  the 
Canon  of  Hebrew  Scripture,  and  the  rabbinical 
comments  on  the  oral  and  written  word,  could  be 
verbally  recovered  from  those  whose  sole  function 
it  is  ceaselessly  to  recite  them. 

The  re  -  translation  into  the  old  sacred 
language  of  Mahinda's  Sinhalese  version  of 
the  three  groups  of  treatises  constitutes  the 
IVi-pitaka,  or  "  three  baskets "  —  the  original 
Bible  of  Buddhadom.  They  are  accessible 
in  part  to  European  readers  in  the  translations 
by  Gogerly,  Max  Miiller,  E.  Burnouf,  Rhva 
Davids,  and  others. 


Buddhism.  49 


The  part  taken  by  Ceylouese  Buddhists 
corresponds  with  the  work  done  for  Christian 
literature  by  the  scholars  of  Alexandria  and 
CsBsarea.  The  faith  has  preserved  its  pristine 
form  in  Ceylon  and  Burmah  more  obviously 
than  it  did  iu  India  itself.  The  most  imposing 
event  in  the  history  of  the  faith  is  that  which,  Sjlj^l^ 
about  the  time  of  the  Christian  era,  transmitted  ^^^"^^ 
it  to  China.  The  particular  form  of  it  which 
took  that  great  departure,  differs  in  some  essential 
features  from  that  which  became  classic  and 
sacred  in  Ceylon,  and  which  is  represented  in  the 
Pali  literature. 

A  grave  difference  of  judgment  which  prevailed  DifferenoM 
at  the  Patna  Council,  on  the  extent  of  the  Canon  2*^°^  »* 

'  Sacred 


of  Sacred  Books  and  on  the  rules  of  the  Order,  ^^^^' 
led   to   the  formation  of   many  discordant  sects.  Su'" 
These  may  be  roughly  regarded  in  the  main  as 
two,  and  characterized  (a)  as  the  followers  of  the 
*'  Little  Vehicle,"   Hinayana ;    and    {b)   the    ad- 
herents  of  Mahayana,  or   the  "Great  Vehicle." 
This    distinction     took     its    nomenclature    from 
another  great  council  of  Buddhists,  held  about  the 
time  of  the  Christian  era,  under  the  direction  of  j^j^g  ^f  d©- 
Kanishka,  the  then  ruler  of  Kashmir.     One  line  K?en°Sie 
of  demarcation  between  the  two  schools  was  that  schoois-the 

followers  of 

whereas  the  Hinayana — or  the  books  alone  known  y^^JJ^'h"® 
to  the  southern  Buddhists— were  written  in  Pali,  JJ^J^jf 
the   books   of  the   "  Great  Vehicle "   were  more  veMctor* 


50 


Buddhism. 


Oontroveray 
as  to  the 
relative 
antiquity  of 
the  two 
Vehicles. 


Chinese, 
Tibetan,  and 
Nepaulese 
Buddhism 
originated 
in  the 
"  Great 
Vehicle." 


The  contest 
between 
Confucian- 
ism and 
Buddhism. 


numerous,  and  were  written  in  Sanscrit.^  A  con- 
troversy, resembling  that  between  advocates  of  the 
longer  and  shorter  recensions  of  the  letters  of  Igna- 
tius, has  prevailed  as  to  the  relative  antiquity  of 
the  two  Vehicles.  The  general  opinion  of  scholars 
is  that  the  Pali  documents  undoubtedly  contain 
the  most  venerable  and  primitive  traditions  and 
sayings  of  Buddha,  but  the  great  expansive  energies 
of  Buddhism  which  have  enabled  it  to  hold  in  its 
embrace  the  vast  populations  of  China,  and  the  ex- 
traordinary subsequent  accretions  to  the  faith  in 
Tibet  and  Nepal,  have  taken  their  oiigin  in  the 
Great  Vehicle  and  the  Sanscrit  literature.  The 
great  contest  between  Confucianism  and  Buddhism 
turned  on  the  fact  that  the  latter  reinforced  the 
moral  precepts  common  to  them  both,  with  motives 
drawn  from  a  future  life,  the  rewards  of  virtue, 
the  punishment  of  transgression.  The  Con- 
f  ucianist  declared  these  to  be  illusory  and  ignoble ; 
the  Buddhists  maintained  them  to  be  rational  and 
worthy.      But  if  Buddha  himself  were  supposed 


^  The  two  most  celebrated  Sanscrit  Books  are  (1)  the  Lalita 
Vistara,  which  has  been  cried  up  as  the  most  precious  memorial 
of  the  early  Buddhism  by  some  writers,  e.g.,  M.  St.  Hilaire  and 
Mr,  Lilly.  Dr.  Davids  argues  (Hibbei-t  Lectures,  pp.  197,  ff.) 
that  the  first  certain  proof  of  its  existence  is  the  Tibetan  trans- 
lation of  it  in  the  sixth  century  a.d.  There  may  be  Chinese 
translations  much  eaiUer,  this  is  not  proved  ;  (2)  the  Prdjna 
Paramita,  the  great  metaphysical  treatise,  analyzed  by  Burnouf 
pp.  438,  S.,  exhibiU  the  later  deyelopment  of  the  Buddhist 
doctrine. 


Buddhism.  61 


to  have  passed  into  utter  non-continuity  of 
being,  and  Nirvana  meant  for  them  the  state  of 
mind  from  which  no  karma  could  henceforth  en- 
train the  elements  of  consciousness  into  corporeal 
form ;  the  future  life  is  an  impossibility,  and  its 
power  to  influence  the  moral  judgments  infini- 
tesimal.^ 

The  Mahayana  treatises  (whether  Yinaya,  Sutra,  The  new 

and  great 

or  Abidharma),  however  highly  they  estimate  deveiopmeni 
Buddha,  introduce  a  new  and  enormous  develop-  ^tST* 
ment  of  thought  by  describing  the  character,  home, 
enjoyment,  and  power  of  the  great  Boddhi-sattwas 
— beings,  that  is,  who  reached  the  condition  of 
Arhat  on  earth,  and  having  died,  await  a  final 
birth  into  this  world.  There  is  the  germ  of  this 
mythological  expansion  in  the  Pali  books;  and 
in  some  southern  temples,  worship  or  honour  is 
given  to  Maitreya,  the  Buddha  of  the  future; 
but  as  early  as  400  a.d.  Fabian,  the  great  Chinese 
pilgrim  to  the  holy  land  of  Buddhadom,  finds  the 
homage  to  Manjusri  and  Avalokitesicara  all  but 
universal.    Great  discussion  prevailed  in  the  north-  niscussiont 

■*  about  the 

western  provinces  of  India,  as  to  the  nature  of  soul  ^o^i- 
itself.     The  purest  and  strongest  idealism  began  to  The  preva^ 

•*•  ^    ^  lence  of 

prevail,     "All  things  that  exist  result   from  the  ideaUsm. 

^  The  history  of  Chinese  Buddhism  may  be  read  in  Beal's 
Chinese  Buddhism,  and  Dr.  Edkins'  work  on  the  same  subject  ; 
also  in  Beal's  Introd/uction  to  the  Travels  of  Fahian  and  Hiouen 
Thtang  and  Vie  de  Hiouen  Thsang,  translated  into  French  by 
M.  Stanislas  Jiilien. 


^2 


Buddhism. 


Fabled 
worlds. 


The  -world 
presided 
over  by 
Amitabha. 


heart,"  they  said.  "All  things  material  are  empty." 
"  All  things  are  just  what  the  mind  reports  them." 
Such  formulaB  must  have  made  havoc  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  negation  of  soul,  and  opened  the  way 
to  boundless  speculation.  Worid  upon  worid  was 
fabled  where  these  mighty  Boddhi-sattwas  ruled, 
as  "  Supreme  wisdom,"  "  Yisual  power,"  "  Perfect 
holiness,"  and  the  like. 

The  most  impressive  and  far-reaching  effect  was 
produced  among  the  northern  Buddhists  by  the 
supposed  Amitabha.  Amitabha  was  said  to  pre- 
side in  a  world  far  away  to  the  west,  where  all  the 
conditions  are  different  from  those  in  this  world. 
No  transmigration  there  introduces  its  endless 
dance.  The  precious  metals  and  gems  abound. 
Thousands  of  Buddhas  dwell  there  in  royal  peace. 
Amitabha  (*'  boundless  age  ")  has  been  living  there 
for  a  practical  eternity.  Two  great  Boddhi-sattwas 
aid  him  in  saving  multitudes  of  living  beings,  who 
are  born  on  their  death  into  the  paradise  of  his 
presence. 

This  is  only  one  of  many  similar  imaginations, 
which  fill  up  the  arctic  void  left  by  the  agnostic 
utterances  of  Gautama,  and  the  arid  speculations 
of  the  Sanscrit  metaphysics.  The  very  terms  in 
which  the  Sutras  express  these  tropical  conceptions 
show  that  their  inventions  were  allegorizing  and 
romancing  to  an  extreme  degree ;  but  the  form  of 
Buddhism  which  China  has  accepted,  and  which 


His  saving 
work. 


^Mlegorizlng 

and 

1  umancing 

ekaracter  of 

these 

inventions. 


Buddhism.  5tJ 


prevails  to  the  present  day  is  saturated  with  these  cwnese 

.  ,  .       .  .       .«  Buddhism 

ideas.     This  is  most  sisrnincant,  and  proves  that  saturated 

"  ^  with  these 

the  nihilism  and  intellectual  self-sufficiency  of  the  i'^®*^- 
southern  Buddhism  has  succumbed  before  the  con-  of  the  fact, 
ception  of  personal  continuity  and  of  something 
akin  to  Divine  grace. 

One  of  the  most  affecting  indications  of  the 
progress  of  the  ideas  of  the  Great  Vehicle  in 
China,  is  the  fact  that  when  in  the  seventh  century 
A.D.,  Hiouen  Thsang,  the  greatest  of  the  Chinese  The  dying 

•1       •  1  •  1  •  11'  desire  of 

pilgrims,   was   drawing    near    his   end,   his   most  the  greatest 


of  the 
Chinea 
pilgrims. 


exalted  hope  was  that  in  consequence  of  the  extent  cMnese 
of  his  sacrifices,  and  the  excellence  of  his  work,  he 
might  be  bom  into  the  palace  and  home  where 
Maitreya,  the  Buddha  of  the  future,  dwells  in  light 
and  glory  and  serene  contemplations.  The  thick 
darkness  of  Nirv&na  shimmers  with  the  phantasms 
of  imaginary  paradises. 

There  is  little  dispute  that  Manjusri  is  addressed  The  worsMj 

of 

in  prayer  as  the  enlightener  of  the  world.  He  ManiusrL 
may  or  may  not  be  identifiable  with  a  great  mendi- 
cant, who  introduced  Buddhism  into  Nepal.  This 
missionary  is  looked  upon  as  especially  connected 
with  the  origination  of  the  school  of  thought  which 
issued  in  the  "  Great  Yehicle."  Perfect  wisdom  is 
undoubtedly  attributed  to  him,  and  he  is  worshipped 
as  God  ;  while  Avalokiteswara,  "  the  Lord  who 
looks  down  from  on  high,"  is  the  spirit  of  the 
Buddhas  present  in  the    community.     Fourteen 


54 


Buddhism. 


hundred  years  ago,  he  was  addressed  in  prayer  by 
Fahian  with  as  much  fervour  as  Indra  or  Siva  is 
approached  now  by  a  devout  Hindu. 

Another  Boddhi-sattwa  of  immense  popularity, 

adored   through   many   provinces   of    China,  etc., 

ajie worship  Mongolia  and   Tibet  is  Kwan-t/in,  "The  infinite 


Kwux-yin. 


Thecounter- 
parts  of  the 
mortal 
Buddhas  in 
a  super- 
sensual 
world. 


mercy."  He  is  represented  as  a  female  figure 
holding  in  her  arms  a  child,  and  certainly  suggesting 
the  idea  that  some  semi- Christian  influences  may 
have  moulded  this  form  of  modern  Buddhism. 
However  foreign  this  idea  may  be  to  the  calm 
passionless  agnosticism  of  earlier  days,  the  vast 
majority  of  those  who  honour  the  name  of  Buddha 
have  created  a  pantheon  rich  in  personal  character- 
istics, in  objects  of  practical  worship,  and  of  fanatic 
idolatry.  They  have  thus  met  the  demands  of  the 
outraged  human  heart,  by  forming  vague  and  dis- 
torted images  of  One  who  fills  all  things,  all  worlds, 
and  all  time  with  His  presence. 

A  further  late  development  of  the  Great  Yehicle 
has  exerted  a  vast  influence  on  the  popular  mind. 
It  amounts  to  this,  that  every  mortal  Buddha, 
down  to  the  last,  viz.,  Gautama,  and  the  next, 
supposed  to  be  Maitreya,  has  his  counterpart  or 
type  of  a  Boddhi-sattwa  in  a  super-sensual  world. 
Thus  Avalokiteswara  is  the  great  source  or  type  of 
Gautama,  and  he  again  is  the  emanation  of  what 
was  called  a  Dhyani  Buddha,  in  a  still  wider 
and  loftier  and  purer  region.     Thus  the  Dhyani 


Bnddfiiam.  66 


Buddha  of  Avalokiteswara,  is  Amitabha,  "the 
boundless  age,"  or  the  "immeasurable  light;"  and 
there  is  the  threefold  unity  of  Amitabha,  Avalo- 
kiteswara and  Gautama,  to  satisfy  the  longing  of 
the  worshipper  for  something  more  trustworthy 
than  the  annihilated  man.  Moreover,  faith  in 
Amitabha  is  the  grand  instrument  by  which  man 
may  rise  into  the  blessedness  which  he  gives. 

A  portion  of  the  Tibetan  community,  about  the 
tenth  century,  a.d.,  resolved  all  the  Dhy^ni- 
Buddhas  of  the  infinite  past  and  of  innumerable 
worlds  into  a  unitv,  and  spoke   of   the   Supreme  Thesupreir* 

^  ^  Buddha 

Buddha,  the  Adi-Buddha,  who  corresponds  with  ^i^^^^ 
the  ultimate  Divine  Essence  of  the  Gnostic  schools,  «>°^«°i*y- 
and   from   whom  all   emanations  of  life,  human, 
angelic,    prenatal,    archetypal,   and    divine,  have 
sprung. 

In  dealing  therefore  with  Buddhadom  as  a 
concrete  whole,  it  must  be  granted  that  among 
some  of  its  disciples  the  conception  of  the  supreme 
source  of  all  being  is  recognised  and  worshipped. 

Buddhism  has  suffered  another  development  of 
extraordinary  power  in  the  country  of  Tibet. 
Here  the  ideas  of  Buddha   were  from   the   first  The  great 

Boddhi- 

associated  with  the  thought  of  the  great  Boddhi-  ^^^^^^^ 
sattwa,  Avalokiteswara,  who  was  present  by  his  ^^"*- 
spirit  in  the  community  of  the  faithful    In  Tibet 
he  was  believed  to  reside  especially  in  the  most 
distinguished  of  them,  and  to  take  up  his  abode  in 


56  Buddhism, 


the  chief    pontiff   or   patriarch  of  their   church, 
The  Pope  of   whom    thcv    Called   Dalai-Lama.     In   him,    the 

Biuldliadom. 

veritable  Pope  of  Buddhadom,  the  Adi-Buddha  is 
supposed  to  be  incarnated.  Long  and  stormy  has 
been  the  conflict  among  rival  claimants  to  this 
high  position.  His  history  is  a  striking  parody 
upon  that  of  the  Pontifical  See  of  Christendom. 
In  the  occupant  of  this  blasphemous  rank,  that  of 
God  upon  earth,  is  vested  perpetually  the  supreme 
temporal  power.  The  worship,  the  ceremonial, 
the  ecclesiastical  orders  strangely  correspond  with 
those  of  the  Roman  Church. 
The  literary  The  rescarchcs  of  Csoma-de-Koros,  of  the  two 
tmwures  o  ggj^iaginweits,  of  Koppen,  Mr.  Rockhill  and  others, 
show  that  we  have  much  to  learn  from  the  still 
unexplored  literary  treasures  of  Tibet.  These 
consist  of  thousands  of  translations  and  com- 
mentaries upon  the  Sanscrit  books,  which  deal 
with  the  life  of  Buddha,  with  the  founding  and 
nature  of  his  order,  and  with  the  metaphysics  of 
cufitoms  the  schools.  Many  strange  customs  have  been 
in  Tibet.  invented  in  Tibet,  which  have  travelled  thence 
into  Mongolia,^  by  which  the  religious  duties  of 
the  faithful  may  be  expedited.  The  sacred  bio- 
graphies, rules  of  conduct  and  prayers,  are  inscribed 
on  rolls  and  placed  in  cylinders,  which  are  capable 
of  being  turned  by  the  hand  of  the  willing  wor- 
shipper.   He  is  told  that  by  assisting  these  praying 

^  Gilmour,  Among  tite  Mongolt, 


Buddhism.  57 


cylinders  to  revolve,  he  acquires  the  merit  of 
having  perused  the  literature,  or  offered  the 
prayers  thus  inscribed.  More  than  this,  the 
machinery  is  not  infrequently  set  in  motion  by 
windmills,  which  thus  greatly  cheapen  the  merit 
of  all  who  share  in  their  erection  ! 

It  is  impossible  to  trace  the  utter  decadence  and  JJ^^']^^ 
disappearance  of  Buddhist  faith  in  the  land  of  its  "^^^<^*- 
origin.  But  about  the  seventh  century,  the  Brah- 
minical  order  and  the  civil  power  utterly  crushed 
or  expelled  the  Buddhist  system  and  profession 
from  India.  For  a  while  the  two  forms  of  faith 
must  have  existed  side  by  side,  as  the  ruins 
around  Benares  and  Delhi,  and  the  caves  of 
Ellora  prove.  Even  the  mythology  of  Brahmins 
regarded  Buddha  as  one  of  the  Avatars  of 
Vishnu,  though  Buddhists  themselves  are  spoken 
of  with  malice  and  contempt. 

The  Jains  of  Western  India  represent  probably  The  move- 

.   *      mentrepre- 

an   analoerous  movement   to   that  which   was  m-  sentedby 

*-'  the  Jains  ol 

augurated  by  Gautama,  and  their  sect  was  pro-  ^f^^"^ 
bably  swollen  during  the  persecutions  of  the  tenth  ?? tha?^ 
and  eleventh  centuries  by  refugees  from  the  old  byofiSna 
body.     When  the  Chinese  pilgrim  visited  India  in 
the  seventh  century,  he  saw  in  many  places  but 
the    remnant    of   what   was    once    a    flourishing 
community,  and  three  hundred  years  later  it  had 
utterly  vanished.     It  may  be  we  trace  the  echoes 
of  its  influence  in   the   Bhagavad   Gita,   in   the 


58  Buddhism. 


worship  of  Jaganath,^  and  in  the  speculations  of 
some  of  the  schools  of  Hindu  philosophy. 

Buddhism  has  assumed  other  shapes  in  Japan 

and  Siam,  in  the  Tartar  kingdoms,  and   in   the 

Buddhadom   modom   life   of   Burmah   and  Ceylon.     We    can 

a  Simula^ 

crumof        without  difficulty  discern  in  this  brief  outline  of 

Chnstendom  "^  ^ 

Buddhadom,   a   most    impressive    simulacrum   of 

The  birth-     Christendom.     We  see  the  place  of  its  origin  dese- 

Buddhism     crated  and  trampled  upon  by  strangers,  we  discern 

its  most  antique  and  veritable  form  in  active  and 

energetic  exercise  in  the  great  island  of  Ceylon. 

There  its  nihilism  and  its  atheism  are  the  orthodox 

faith.     There  Buddha  is  venerated  as  the  saint, 

than  whom  among  Gods  or  men  there  hath  not 

In  Ceylon  it  riseu  a  greater ;  but  even  in  Ceylon  we  see  that  its 

exists  in  its       ,      . 

mostancient  disciplcs  havc  been  able  to  blend  it  with  magic  and 
aboriginal  deva-worship  of  the  island.  In  India, 
among  the  Jains,  it  has  blossomed  into  a  portentous 
mythology;  throughout  China  it  bas  blended  with 
the  man-homage  of  the  middle  kingdom,  and  the 
religious  nature  inherent  in  man  has  allowed  the 
mists  of  Nirvana  to  wreathe  themselves  into  the 
apocalyptic  splendours  of  the  paradise  of  Amitabha. 

Pontifical      In  Tibet  it  has  developed  a  pontifical  system,  with 

doTelopment 

in  Tibet.  a  group  of  cardiuals,  and  a  splendour  of  mystery  and 
ritual  rivalling  the  most  imposing  functions  of  the 
Vatican.    In  Japan,  coupled  with  a  larger  element 


^  William  Erskine,  Remains  of  Buddhists  in  India,  Literary 
Transactions  of  Bombay  Society,  Vol.  Ill, 


BuddhisTTi,  69 


of  the  old  nature  worship,  it  has  inspired  religious  its  influence 
practices,  revival  services  at  which  thousands  of 
ecstatic  devotees  cry  out  for  the  mercy  of  Amitabha. 
Buddhism  on  a  stupendous  scale  has  occupied  the 
thoughts,  stimulated  the  speculations,  and  to  some 
extent  satisfied  the  craving  of  mankind. 

Where  its  first  principles  have  been  most  widely  g®^^^®^ 
departed  from,  as  in  Tibet,  there  some  very  close  Sj^^'^he™ 
resemblance  to  the  Roman  Catholic  doctrine,  order,  !Jide?y°^"^* 
and  ritual,  arrests  attention.   The  real  resemblances  from^its 

first 

to    ecclesiastical,  not   primitive   Christianity,   are  principles, 
deviations  from  its  ideal  and  from  its  orthodoxy. 
The   fancied  and   superficial   resemblances  do,  on 
closer  inquiry,  reveal  essential  differences. 

A  few  words  finally  on  the  antithesis  andfunda-  contrast 
mental  differences  between  Buddhism  and  Christianity.  J^istian- 
The  most  essential  divergence   between   the  two  The  nature 
systems  is  seen  {a)  in  the  nature  and  object  of  worship.  o?wor£p. 
The  earliest  informants  to  which  we  can  appeal, 
the  portions  of  the  Tri-pitaka  in  the  Pali  canon, 
including  the  (Sutras)  discourses  of  Gautama,  while 
they  heap  in  Oriental  hyperbole  the  phrases  of 
extravagant  eulogy  upon  the  person  of  Gautama, 
and  extol  his  wisdom  as  though  it  were  boundless, 
never  do  attribute  to  him  creative  powers,  or  the 
Divine  glory  and  claims.      Mr.  S.  Hardy  quotes 
from  a  high  Sinhalese  authority  : — 

**  The  eye  cannot  see  anything,  nor  the  ear  hear  anything  more 
excellent,  more  worthy  of  regard  than  Buddha.    The  Riahia 


60 


Buddhism, 


may  tell  the  number  of  metres  in  the  sky,  hide  the  earth  with 
the  tip  of  the  finger,  may  shake  the  forest  of  Himala  by  a 
cotton  thread  ;  but  there  is  no  being  who  can  swim  to  ths 
opposite  side  of  the  ocean  of  excellence  possessed  by  Buddha."  ^ 


The  Bacred 
books  vir- 
tually deify 
Buddha. 


^0  Creator, 
Moral 
Governor, 
nor  Supreme 
Lawgiver  in 
the  Suttras 
of  Buddha. 


The  recoil 
from  the 
nihilism  at 
the  back  of 
all  things. 


The  Sacred  Books  and  the  people  do  vii'tually 
deify  him,  and  yet  there  is  an  enormous  difference 
between  their  treatment  of  him,  their  greatest,  and 
what  we  mean  by  religious  worship.  The  Yaso- 
mitra  (quoted  by  Bumouf)  declares  that : — 

"  If  God,  or  spirit,  or  matter  were  the  original  cause  of  the 
universe,  then  the  universe  would  have  been  created  at  once, 
for  the  cause  could  not  exist  without  producing  its  effect ;  but 
that  inasmuch  as  all  things  follow  a  perpetual  cycle,  animals 
from  the  wombs  of  mothers,  trees  from  little  seeds,  a  vast  cycle 
of  events  and  not  a  will  or  a  cause  have  produced  the  universe.'' 

In  none  of  the  Sutras  of  Buddha  is  there  any 
trace  of  any  world-creating  substance,  any  Being  in 
whom  all  things  live.  The  universe  is  an  awful  fact, 
whose  tyranny  is  to  be  subdued  by  the  intellectual 
apprehension  of  its  impermanence  and  illusion. 
Moral  duties  are  inculcated  without  any  reference 
to  the  Giver  of  any  law  or  to  any  Creator,  Deliverer, 
or  Lord  of  the  human  spirit.  There  is  much 
honour  done  to  him  who  has  unriddled  the  mystery 
of  suffering,  but  none  to  Him  whose  laws  con- 
stitute the  basis  of  the  moral  universe. 

The  heart  of  man  has  recoiled  from  the  utter 
nihilism  at  the  back  of  all  things,  and  has  in 
northern  Buddhism  (as  we  have  seen)  imagined  a 

^  Marmal  of  Buddhism^  pp.  359-363 ;  quoting  the  MS.  ol 
the  SadharmarcUiuikaie. 


Buddhism. 


circle  of  lofty  beings,  who  are  able  to  help  and  The 

.    .  ,  ..  p  ,        imagined 

soothe  the  desolate  spirit,  when  it  turns  from  the  comforters 

^    ^  _  and  helpers 

illusions  of  sensa     Amitabha  and  Maitreya  (called  buddhism" 
Omito  and  Mile),  and   other  vast  powers,  are  ap- 
proached in  reverence  and  prayer ;  but  throughout 
China,  Buddha  himself,  the  greatest  of  them  all,  is  I 
not  appealed  to  for  present  help  in  time  of  trouble,  ^ 
any  more  than  is  Confucius  or  Laotse. 

(b)  The  Buddhist  doctrine  of  the  ground  of  the  The  Buddh- 

.      .  p  .   .      ,  -    ' .     .        ist  doctrine 

univefse  is  utterly  agnostic,  it  not  positively  atheistic,  of  the 
The  tendency  to  suffering  is  universal,  and  immoral  *^«  q^I^^^ 
actions  augment  it.  The  most  iron  fate  links  action 
with  action,  and  affiliates  every  possible  conaition  or 
circumstance — all  alike  wretched — to  some  perver- 
sion of  vnll  in  the  present  or  previous  lives;  but  this 
chain  of  causation  is  not  to  the  Buddhist  an  act  of 
a  supreme  will,  or  modus  operandi  of  any  moral 
being.  Prayer  cannot  alter  its  incidence,  and  no 
power  outside  of  man  can  aid  the  devotee.  **  Work 
out  (/our  own  salvation"  by  self- obliteration  and 
obedience,  is  the  last  word  of  Buddha. 

"With  this  root  principle  Christianity  is  absolutely  christ  asthe 

,  ,  •    j^  J  J-  eternal  Son 

discrepant,  and  can  come  into  no  terms  oi  agree-  is  the 

^  ^  .        .  revealer  of 

ment  or  compromise.  The  Christ  is  the  Eevealer  ^^^  father. 
of  the  Father  in  heaven,  because  He  is  the  only- 
begotten  and  eternal  Son  incarnate,  and  He  main- 
tains against  all  the  lies  and  corruption  of  the  human 
heart,  and  all  the  peril  of  the  human  soul,  His 
supreme  goodness,  justice,  power,  and  lova     The 


62 


Bvddhism. 


The  Buddh- 
ist theory  of 
theunirerse. 


idea  tliat  God  is  love,  that  God  is  spirit,  that  God 
is  LIGHT,  that  the  knowledge  of  God  is  eternal  life, 
is  the  logical  contradictory  of  Buddhism. 

The  Buddhist  theory  of  the  universe  is  that  it 
forms  one  vast  lazar-house,  through  which  the 
flame  of  all-devouring  desire  and  boundless  illusion 
is  ever  rushing.  Continuity  of  suffering  does  not 
quench  the  flame.  Death  does  not  deliver  life 
from  its  incessant,  consuming  fire.  The  only 
salvation  is  such  a  habit  of  mind  as  becomes 
insensible  to  the  flame,  and  is  the  obliteration 
of  all  desire.  The  Christian  theory  of  suffering 
is  that  it  is  caused  and  intensified  by  sin;  that 
the  universe  is  the  Father's  house,  that  in  the 
restoration  of  filial  relations  with  Him  there  is 
fulness  of  joy,  and  that  suffering  vanishes  in  the 
consciousness  of  perfect  peace.  The  Buddhist 
admires,  and  all  but  adores,  the  memory  of  the 
Gautama  the  Buddha,  because  he  is  supposed  to 
have  revealed  the  way  out  of  the  cycle  of  birth  and 
death.  The  Christian  adores  the  Son  of  God,  who 
by  reason  of  His  incarnation  and  death  upon  the 
cross  to  put  away  sin  by  the  sacrifice  of  Himself, 
has  been  highly  exalted  and  received  "  the  name 
that  is  above  every  name."  In  His  own  hand 
He  holds  the  keys  of  death  and  hades,  and  delivers 
man  from  death  by  the  gift  and  fulness  of  the 
eternal  life  beyond  the  grave. 

(c)  Buddhism  recognizes  sin  against  the  moral 


The  Chris- 
tian theory 
of  the  uni- 
verse ad  the 
Father's 
house. 


Why  the 

Buddhist 

admires 

Gautama. 


Why  the 
Christian 
adores  the 
Son  of  God. 


Buddhism,  G3 


law ;  but  the  law  is  impersonal,  and  the  wages  of  sin  ajcord- 
sin  are  imposed  by  eternal  fate.   It  has  no  conception  Buddhism 
of  pardon,  or  redemption,  or  sacrifice.    Christianity 
recognizes  an  awful  possibility  of  sin  and  punish- 
ment, and  a  widely  present  sorrow ;  but  it  brings 
to  human  corruption  a  sufficient  antidote,  replaces  The 

Ml-  •  1  •         p  1  •  -I    •  Christian 

evil  desires  by  consuming  thirst  for  that  which  is  the  antidote  to 
holiest  and  the  best ;  it  reveals  a  joy  of  reconcilia- 
tion with  God,  that  transmutes    the  sorrow  into 
blessedness,  and  gilds  the  bed  of  death  with  light. 
It   makes   union  with   the  Infinite  God,  through 
the  incarnation  and  sacrifice  of  the  God- man,  the 
hope  of  the  world.     Buddhism  has  no  gospel  for  the  l^^^^ 
ignorant  or  the  babe,  holds  out  no  hope  of  deliver-  ^^^^  '**' 
ance  except  to  the  wise  and  prudent,  to  the  learned  the  babe. 
and  strong.     It  has  conjured  up  a  world  of  fancied 
terrors,  from  which  it  would  save  all  forms  of  life, 
when  they  shall  have  once  reached  the  pinnacle  of 
metaphysical   subtlety.     Jesus  said,  "Come  unto  jesuscaiis 
Me,  all  ye  that  labour  and  are  heavy  laden,  and  I  dened  and 

'  -^  .  .  children  to 

will  give  you  rest.*'     *'  Suffer  the  little  children  to  Himself. 
come  unto  Me,  for  of  such  is  the  kingdom  of  God." 

{d)  Yerily  Buddhism,  throughout  its  vast  extent  J^cJeding 
of  pessimistic  cosmology  and  ethical  fatality,  with  its  suddhil^.**' 
ghastly  Nirvana,  and  the  hopelessness  of  its  summum 
bonunif  seems  to  us  to  be  an  exceeding  bitter  cry 
for  that  which  Chtnstianity  has  to  offer.  It  pro- 
claims the  misery  of  man,  but  has  stumbled  in  its 
explanation  of  that  misery.     It  proclaims  the  evil 


64 


Buddhism. 


The  mute 
prophecy  of 
Buddhism. 


of  sin,  and  thougli  it  leaves  no  place  for  forgive- 
ness and  has  no  notion  of  a  Redeemer,  it  vagueij' 
asks  for  pardon,  justification,  and  eternal  life. 
Its  willingness  to  accept  a  noble  ideal  of  manhood 
when  made  known  to  it,  is  a  mute  prophecy 
that  when  th»  true  Man  is  revealed  to  it,  it  will 
call  Him  "Lord  of  all."  Yerily  our  Lord  would 
have  said  of  Gautama,  "  Thou  art  not  far  from  the 
kingdom  of  God ;  "  and  he  would  have  exclaimed 
"  Lord,  to  whom  shall  we  go  but  unto  Thee  ?  " 

Buddhism  grasped  the  idea  of  humanity  as  a 
whole,  and  this  proclaims  a  nearer  approach  to 
Christianity  than  any  heathen  religion.  It  has 
embraced  Aryan  and  Tartar,  Chinaman  and 
Turkoman,  in  its  arms ;  but  Christianity  has  mas- 
tered every  kind  of  man.  In  Him  who  is  One 
with  the  Father,  the  Aryan  and  Semite,  the  Bar- 
barian and  Scythian,  the  Saxon  and  Celt,  the 
philosopher  and  child,  have  found  their  deepest 
unity.  Surely  it  is  not  too  much  to  hope  that  the 
Christian  Church  may  even  yet  convince  the  Buddh- 
ist millions,  that  not  blind  destiny  but  Infinite 
Love  enwraps  this  universe,  that  the  fear  of  endless 
transmigration  from  eternity  to  eternity  is  an  un- 
sustained  delusion,  that  there  is  One"  in  whom  are 
hidden  all  the  treasures  of  wisdom  and  knowledge." 


The  idea  of 
humanity 
as  a  whole 
grasped  by 
Buddhism. 

Buddhism 
has 

embraced 
some  races, 
but 

Christianity 
has  mas- 
tered men 
of  every 
race. 


Hope 

concerning 

the 

Buddhist 

millions. 


CHRISTIANITY 


AND 


ANCIENT   PAGANISM 


J.  MURRAY  MITCHELL,  M.A,,  LL.D. 


^rgum^int  of  tb^  Tract* 


The  comparative  study  of  religions  has,  in  our  day,  become 
exceedingly  popular;  but  erroneous  ideas  are  often  ex- 
pressed as  to  the  position  which  Christianity  holds  among 
the  various  systems  of  belief. 

The  subject  is  of  very  wide  extent.  The  first  thing 
necessary  for  its  proper  discussion  is  a  large  induction  of 
fully  ascertained  facts. 

Happily,  great  progress  has  recently  been  made  in  the 
investigation  of  various  ancient  religions. 

The  Tract  deals  with  ancient  religions  that  were  once 
widely  influential,  but  are  now  extinct.  In  the  body  of  the 
Tract  the  systems  that  prevailed  among  civilized  nations 
are  discussed ;  and,  in  the  note  at  the  end,  a  brief  state- 
ment is  given  of  the  beliefs  and  rites  of  the  chief  uncivi- 
lized races  of  ancient  Europe. 

The  unique  position  held  among  ancient  forms  of  belief 
by  the  Jewish  religion  is  pointed  out;  as  well  as  the  re- 
lation of  that  faith  to  Christianity. 

It  is  shown  that  the  latter  came  in  "the  fulness  of  the 
time." 

Reference  is  also  made  to  the  connection  between  true 
religion  and  civilization. 


CHRISTIANITY 

AND 

ANCIENT  PAGANISM. 


■  TiJ>rf|ir»B 


jucH  attention  is  paid  in  our  days  to  the  The  com. 

comparative   study  of  Religions.     But  study  of 

although   now  prosecuted  with  greater  »<>* »  »e^ 
zeal  than  heretofore,  it  is  by  no  means 
a  new  subject  of  inquiry. 

The  Hebrew  prophets  frequently  drew  a  con-  The 

trast  between  the  God  of  Israel  and  the  idols  of  prophets 

contrasted 

the   nations;    and   their   cry   of  exultation   was,  oJ^jJaei 

"  Their  rock  is  not  as  our  rock ;  even  our  enemies  fdoyof  the 

themselves  being  judges."  naions. 

In   like  manner   the   apologists   of   the   early  The  early 

,  Christian 

Christian  centuries  made  comparisons  between  the  apojo^ista 

■t  contrasted 

teaching  of  Christ  and  that  of  Greek  and  Roman  Ind  rites^" 

books  ;  and  they  elaborately  placed  the  pure  rites  oospli 

enjoined   by  the   Gospel  side   by  side   with   the  Heathen- 
polluted  observances  of  Heathenism. 

Even  so,  soon  after  Mohammadanism  arose,  the 


4  Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganison. 

The  Koran    Koran  was  examined   and  refuted  by  Oliiisiiaiia 

examined  .  •        a     •      i        twt  -ri 

and  refuted    livuier  m  Asia.      ^^^01  was  Europe  content  to  com- 

by  Asiatic  "  ■*• 

ciiristians.  i^^t  Islam  ouly  with  tlie  sword;  the  book  that 
professed  to  be  a  new  revelation  from  heaven  was 
by-and-by  translated  into  Latin  and  carefully 
criticized. 

The  desire         In  like  maDuor,  when  Europe  became  aware  of 

of  the  .  I,  .  .  1  •  1 

opponents  of  the  cxistenco  of  wntmffs  which  were  regarded  as 

Christianity  ,         °  ^ 

to  become      sacred    by  the    nations    of   the    farther  East,  an 

acquainted  •'  ' 

^aCTed^books  earnest  desire  was  felt  to  become  acquainted  with 
of  the  East  ^-j^^^  couteuts.  The  feeling  appears  to  have  been 
strongest  on  the  part  of  the  opponents  of  Chris- 
tianity ;  and  the  reason  of  this  is  not  far  to  seek. 
Unbelievers  expected  that  the  books  of  the  Oriental 
nations  would  prove  great  repositories  of  wisdom ; 
for  it  was  a  tradition  that  the  philosophers  of 
Greece  had  drawn  much  from  Eastern  sources. 
The  hope      It  was   the   hope   of  Voltaire   and   the   French 

cherished  ^  ^ 

wouid^^^       Encyclopedists  that  the  sacred   books  of  Persia, 
S^surpass,   Ii^dia,  and  China,  would  be  found  equal,  if  not 
t^e  Jewis      superior,  in  religious  teaching,  to  the  Jewish  and 
Scriptures.     Christian   Scriptures.     Hence,  when  Roberto  de' 
NobiK,  the  nephew  of  Cardinal  Bellarmine,  pro- 
duced the  work  which  he  sought  to  palm  off   on 
the   Brahmans   of   Madura   as    a   genuine  Veda 
that   had   been  overlooked,    Voltaire    was    com- 
pletely taken  in,  and  caused  the  wonderful  book 
to  be  twice  republished  in  Europe.^    Here  is  an 
*  By  Al  Eindi  and  others.  *  At  Tverdun  and  Paris. 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism.  5 

Oriental  work,  said  tlie  sage  of  Femey,  very  like 
the  Bible,  and  at  least  as  good.  It  is  a  singular 
story,  though  seldom  remembered  now. 

But  ere  long  a  genuine  Oriental  work  was  con- 
veyed to  Europe.      Anquetil  du  Perron  returned  ^^.^^ 
from  his  travels  in  India,  bearing  as  spolia  opima  zoroaster** 
the  writings  usually  ascribed  to  the  famous  Zoro-  *^^"^^^*®^- 
aster.     All   learned  Europe  waited   in  mute  ex- 
pectation for  the  translation  which  he  at  once  set 
about  preparing.  When,  in  1771,  the  oracle,  which 
had  been  silent  for  ages,  at  length  became  vocal,  JJpofn^ent 
the  disappointment  was  infinite ;  and  the  general  thenT*^ 
sentiment   found    expression    in   the    sarcasm   of 
Jones — afterwards    the   learned    Sir   WilKam — 
"  Either  Zoroaster  never  wrote  these  books,  or  he 
was  not  possessed  of  common  sense."     The  cen- 
sure was  far  too  sweeping;    but,  no  doubt,  the 
Zoroastrian   books  were  amazingly  different  from 
what  either  Christians  or  unbelievers  had  expected 
they  would  prove  to  be. 

In  recent  years,  various  causes  have   combined  The  recent 

furtherance 

to    further  the    comparative   study  of   Relierions.  «f  t\e  com. 

^  ./  o  parative 

For  more  than  forty  years,  in  fact,  ever  since  reS^oni 
Grotefend  grappled  with  the  cuneiform,  and 
ChampoUion  with  the  hieroglyphic,  inscriptions, 
steady  progress  has  been  made  in  their  interpret- 
ation ;  and  a  flood  of  Hght  has  been  poured  on 
the  history  of  at  least  seven  ancient  nations. 
Oriental  scholars   have,  in   the   meantime,  been 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Faganism. 


The 

subject 

becoming 

popular. 


The 

Christian 
need  not 
take  alarm. 


laboriously  investigating  the  sacred  writings  of 
China,  India,  and  Persia ;  and  the  results  of  their 
inquiries  have  been  largely  communicated  to 
the  public  in  translations.^  The  subject  may  be 
said  to  be  becoming  popular ;  for  it  is  presented 
in  every  kind  of  publication,  from  the  stately 
review  down  to  the  halfpenny  newspaper.  All 
this  is  well,  when  the  study  of  comparative 
theology  is  presented  in  a  truth-loving  and  candid 
spirit.  The  intelligent  Christian  will  by  no  means 
take  alarm  at  the  result  of  discovery  in  this  field 
of  investigation,  any  more  than  in  the  field  of 
science.  Every  new  fact  he  will  heartily  welcome, 
though  it  behoves  him — as  it  behoves  all — to  scru- 
tinize well  the  conclusions  which  may  be  drawn 
from  facts,  whether  real  or  imaginary.  One  great 
fault  of  the  age  is  rash  deduction,  too  hasty 
generalization.  Lord  Eldon*s  favourite  maxim 
would  stand  us  in  good  stead  in  other  provinces 
as  well  as  that  of  Law — Sat  cito  si  sat  bene,^ 

But  we  must  not  forget  to  say  that  the  study  of 
Keligions  is  deeply  interesting  for  another  reason. 
"  A  man's  religion,"  said  Thomas  Carlyle,  "  is  the 
most  important  thing  about  him."  So  we  may 
also  say  of  a  community.  Therefore,  every  lover 
of  his  kind  must  watch  the  movements  of   the 


Too  hasty 
generaliza^ 
tion  a  fault 
of  the  age. 


The  im- 
portance  of 
religion. 


'  In  the  Sacred  Books  of  the  Eatty  Trubner's  Oriental  Series, 
and  many  separate  publications, 

^  "  Soon  enough,  if  well  eoongh." 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism.  7 

religious  principle  in  man  with  keen  interest  and 
profound  sympathy.     How  have  our  brethren  in  Moral  ^and 
various  lands  and  ages  dealt  with  the  duties  of  life,  P[obie"^^ 
the  trials  of  life,  the  perplexing  problems  of  life  ?  SThe^*"^ 
What  have  been  their  thoughts  of  God,  and  of  siu,  Jistf"  "*" 
of  a  world  to  come  ?     Questions  like  these  are  of 
engrossing  interest  to  every  philanthropist.     Nor 
will  he  be  repelled  from  the  iuquiry  if  he  find  that 
it  is  in  connexion  with  religion  more  than  any 
other   subject    that   we   have    to  deal   with  the 
morbid  anatomy  of  human  nature,  and  that  the 
saddest  aberrations  of  the  mind  have  been  when 
engaged  in  the  prosecution  of  the  highest  of  all 
questions. 

It  is  only  fair  that  we  should  mention  at  the 
outset  what  is  the  point  of  view  from  which  we 
examine  the  field  of  inquiry.     "We  believe  the  JJ^stian 
Christian  Revelation  to  be  unique ;  cui  nihil  viget  ^^qj^^^ 
simile  aut  secundum}    But  that  belief  by  no  means 
involves  the   consequence   that  the  holder  of  it 
should  be   unfair  to   other  systems   of    religion. 
Nay,  the  very  strength  of  his  conviction  cf  the 
supreme   glory  of  the  Gospel,  and  the  assurance  The 
that  all  competition  between  it  and  other  systems  ^J^^and 
is  out  of  the  question,  ought  to  contribute  to  calm-  I^ms*^*^ 
ness  and  impartiality  in  his   judgment  of  other  if  fthe? 
creeds.     In  truth,  he  must  be  a  very  narrow- 

*  "To  whom  there  exists  nothing  similar  or  second.'*    So 
Horace,  speaking  of  Jupiter  as  supremei. 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism. 


Fragments 
of  primeval 
revelation 
may  have 
been  borne 
down  the 
stream  of 


Beason  and 


gifts  of 
heaven. 


minded  Christian  who  looks  on  Pagan  systems  as 
merely  masses  of  unrelieved  falsehood.  Why 
should  they  he  so  ?  The  Christian  believes,  and 
many  who  do  not  call  themselves  Christians  believe 
with  him,  that  there  was  given  to  man  a  primeval 
Revelation ;  is  it  probable  that  no  fragments  of  it 
have  been  borne  down  the  stream  of  tixe  ?  Again, 
there  is  such  a  thing  as  the  light  of  nature. 
Reason  and  conscience  are  in  man — most  precious 
gifts  of  heaven.  They  often  speak,  alas !  only  in 
whispers ;  but  to  the  listening  ear  those  whispers 
are  audible.  The  Christian  then  should  expect  to 
find,  and  he  should  rejoice  to  find,  that  heathen 
systems  are  not,  of  necessity,  all  "  dark  as  Erebus." 

It  is  instructive  to  note  how  differently,  at  dif- 
ferent times,  the  point  now  before  us  has  been 
regarded.  We  could  not  expect  that  the  Hebrew 
prophets,  in  vindicating  the  claims  of  Jehovah 
against  Baal  or  Chemosh,  would  carefully  search 
for  redeeming  points  in  the  idolatries  around  them ; 
fidelity  to  God  and  humankind  demanded  that  they 
should  dwell  on  their  baseness  and  corruption,  and 
denounce  them  with  righteous,  vehement  indig- 
nation. Parleying — temporizing — philosophizing 
would  have  been  as  ridiculous  as  ruinous.  Your 
man  of  science  can  prove  that  there  is  heat  in  ice  ; 
but  we  do  not,  on  that  account,  enter  an  ice-house 
to  warm  ourselves. 

But  it  is  remarkable  how  soon  a  calm  and  philo- 


The 

relation  of 
the  Hebrew 
prophets 
to  the 
idolatries 
around 
tiiem. 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism,  9 

sophic  estimate  of  Heatlieiiisiii  was  actually  formed.  The 

•*■  formation 

Tbe  statements  on  tHs  subject  by  the  first  and  °J^^^<^JJ;j. 

greatest  of  all  missionaries  to  the  heathen   are  ^^^^^  ^^ 

broad,  wise,  and  comprehensive.     Even  those  who  s®**^®^"*- 
question  the  inspiration  of  St.  Paul  must  admire 
his  calmness   and  impartiality  in  dealing  with  a 
subject  on  which  surely,  if  on  any,  his  feelings 

might  have  been  expected  to  carry  him  away.    The  ?^^®^Jf*4^e" 

teaching  of  the  Apostle  as  to  Heathenism  may  be  ^^f  about 

summed  up  under  five  heads.     He  declares  that  Heathenism 

Ist.  The  invisible  things  of  God,  even  His  eternal 
power  and  Godhead,  are  clearly  seen,  being 
understood  from  the  things  that  are  made. 

2nd.  The  Gentiles,  when  they  knew  God,  glori- 
fied Him  not  as  God,  neither  were  thankful. 
They  did  not  like  to  retain  God  in  their 
knowledge. 

3rd  They  therefore  became  vain  in  their  ima- 
ginations (reasonings),  and  their  foolish 
heart  {i.e.  understanding)  was  darkened. 
Professing  themselves  to  be  wise  they  be- 
came fools. 

4th.  They  then  changed  the  glory  of  the  incor- 
ruptible God  into  an  image  made  like  to 
corruptible  man,  and  to  birds,  and  quadru- 
peds, and  reptiles, — worshipping  and  serving 
the  creature  rather  than  the  Creator. 


10 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism, 


5th.  All  moral  corruption  followed.  They  were 
given  over  to  a  reprobate  mind,  to  do  those 
things  that  are  not  fitting.^ 


The 

Apostle's 

statement 

a  just 

historical 

account. 


Exceptional 
eases 

recogrnised 
by  ^JTn, 


St.  Paul's 
spirit  shared 
by  many 
Christian 
writers. 


We  believe  the  Apostle's  statement  to  be  a  just 
historical  account  of  the  origin  and  progress  of 
Pagan  idolatry — a  key  which,  better  than  any 
other  we  know,  unlocks  the  secret  of  Heathenism, 
and  best  explains  its  strange  and  manifold  contra- 
dictions. At  the  same  time,  while  true  as  a  whole, 
true  of  the  mass,  we  do  not  suppose  that  St.  Paul 
intended  it  to  apply  to  every  individual  Pagan. 
He  asserts,  indeed,  that  there  are  "  Gentiles  who 
have  no  [written]  law,  but  show  the  work  of  the 
law  written  on  their  hearts."  Let  us  hope  that 
those  who  "  seek  after  God,  if  haply  they  might 
feel  after  Him  and  find  Him,"  have  throughout 
the  ages  been  no  inconsiderablo  number.  And  let 
us  rest  assured  that  the  eye  of  the  all-compassionate 
God  rested  graciously  on  all  such.  Only  let  us 
remember  that  these  exceptional  men,  if  they  found 
God,  did  so,  not  because  of  their  sad  environment, 
but  in  spite  of  it. 

When  we  come  later  down  we  find  not  a  few 
Christian  writers  dealing  with  Paganism  in  the 
spirit  of  St.  Paul.     The  earlier  Fathers  acknow- 

*  Compare  the  striking  language  of  Cicero  with  that  of  the 
Apostle.  Multi  de  diis  prava  sentiunt  ;  id  enim  vitioso  more 
effiei  solet. — Tusc.  i.  13.  (Many  have  wrong  notions  of  the 
gods ;  for  that  usually  springs  from  vicious  morals.) 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism,  I J 

lodged  that  there  were  pure  elements  in  Heathenism ;  The  pure 
and  these   they   attributed  to   the  truth  diffused  Heathenism 

•^  ^  attributed 

among  men  by  Christ,  the  Word.^     It  was,  how-  ^^ 
ever,   the  philosophy  rather  than  the  religion  of  ciSi  ^' 
Greece  in  which  the  fathers  found  "a  trace  of     **    ** 
wisdom  and  an  impulse  from  God."  ^    Yet  certain 
of  the  Fathers,  especially  the  vehement  Tertullian, 
gave  no  quarter,  either  to  the  one  or  the  other. 

In  modem  days,  there  long  existed  a  disposition 
to  paint  non- Christian  systems  in  the  darkest 
colours.  Thus,  Mohammad  was  regarded  as  having  The  modem 

,  ,  "    disposition 

been,  from  the  outset,  a  deep  designing  impostor,  ^°  ^J'^J^^ 
animated  by  mere  selfishness  and  ambition,  and  £*^h7^^"°" 
dexterously  trimming  his  sails  as  the  wind  chanced  ^o^. 
to  blow  from  a  Pagan,  a  Jewish,  or  a  Christian 
quarter.      We  have  since  learned  that  the  problem 
of  his  mixed  character  and  lamentable  fall  is  not 
to  be  solved  so  easily.^ 

This  mode  of  dealing   with    Gentile  religions  This  lasted 

,•11  i>         ^  11  A*^^^  Milton't 

continued  at  least  as  far  down  as  the  days  of  «iav*. 
Milton.  When  we  remember  the  lavish  use  which 
the  great  poet  makes  of  Greek  and  Romtin  mytho- 
logy, we  are  hardly  prepared  for  the  summary  con- 
demnation of  Pagan  faith  which  he  pronounces  both 
in  his  earlier  and  later  writings.  Thus,  speaking 
of  the  god  Osiris  as  terrified  at  the  birth  of  Christ, 
he  summarily  dismisses  him  to  his  proper  place: 

^  The  Aifyof  <nrepiAariK6s. 
*  So  Cltment  of  Alexandria  (Clark's  Edition),  vol.  l  p.  40. 


l2  Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism. 

Nor  is  Osiris  seen 

In  Meraphian  grove  or  green, 
rrampling  the  unshowered  grass  with  lowings  loud ; 

Nor  can  he  be  at  rest 

Within  bis  sacred  chest, — 
Nought  but  profoundest  hell  can  1be  his  shroud. 

Pagan  EvGii  SO,  he  tracGs  the  origin  of  Pagan  systems 

systeoas 

^aced  by      to  the  influence  of  the  fallen  angels,  and  briefly 
Stiuence  of   stigmatizes  them  aU  as 

fallen 

angels.  Gay  religions  full  of  pomp  and  gold, 

And  devils  to  adore  for  deities. 

A  great  Gradually,  however,  and  especially  of  late  years, 

reaction  has  .  "■ 

taken  place    a  gioat  reactiou  has  taken  place.     The  pendulum, 
S>p*odte        which  swung  too  far  in  one  direction,  now  threatens 
extreme.       ^^  rcach  the  opposite  extreme.     It  is  high  time  to 
call  for  a  reaction  from  the  reaction. 

The  principle  that  "  there  is  some  soul  of  good- 
ness in  things   evil,"   is   applied  to   cases  which 
assuredly  were  not  in  Shakespeare's  eye  when  he 
put  the  words  into  the  mouth  of  King  Henry. 
Eviiu  We  are  now  told  that  evil  is  "good  in   the 

not  good  ^  ...  . 

^^  making."  Evil,  indeed,  is  often  compelled,  in  the 
overruling  providence  of  God,  to  bring  about  results 
very  different  from  what  the  evil-doer  sought  to 
reach;  but  sui-ely  evil  is,  in  itself,  intrinsically,  eter- 
nally hateful.  Now,  this  tendency  to  find  some  good 
in  all  things  leads  many  far  astray  in  the  study  of 
Heathen  systems.  What  is  black  as  midnight  is 
often  declared  to  be  only  a  somewhat  deeper  shade 
of  grey. 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism,  13 

We  frequently  hear  of  a  gradual  development  of  christiaiiity 

p     ....  is  repardea 

spiritual  truth  parallel  to  the  progress  of  civilization.   ^^^J^^  ^^  ^ 
All,  or  at  least  most,  of  the  great  Religions  of  the  f^^^ 
world  are  held  to  have  contributed  their  share  to  ™®^** 
the  advancement  of  true  religion.     Thus,  Christ- 
ianity is  only  the  last  in  the  series — the  last  as  yet, 
though  possibly  destined  to  give  place,  ere  long,  to  a 
system  still  more  exalted  and  refined. 

The  hypothesis  of  Evolution  has  taken  such  ^^J^jy^hat 
possession  of  the  mind  of  multitudes,  that  they  ^^^^^^ 
push  it — as  if  it  were  an  established  truth — into  caiT^^d*^ 
regions  in  which  the  principle,  whether  true  or  false,  SSthout^  ^' 

pause. 

can  bear  no  legitimate  sway.  It  is  frequently 
maintained  that  all  human  things  advance  by  calm, 
orderly  steps,  with  slight,  if  any,  evidence  of  a  pause, 
none  of  retrogression.  But  history  denies  this.  It 
is  of  course  true  that,  taken  in  its  wide  extent, 
humanity  moves  on,  as  Wordsworth  says.  Humanity 

advances  in 


With  an  ascent  and  progress  in  the  mam. 


the  "ihIti, 


But  if  many  races  have  risen,  some  have  remained 
stationary,    and   others  have  sunk.     True,  in  art 
and  science  there  has  been  a  great  advance  on  the 
whole.     But  we  must  not  forget  that  many  of  the 
highest  attainments  of  the  human  mind  were  made  Many  of 
long  ages  ago.     Thus  Egypt  and  the  East  ^  handed  attaSm^t* 
over  their  sculpture,  architecture,  and  other  arts  to  ago. 
Greece;  and  there  they  rapidly  attained  an  ex- 

^  Egypt.  Phoenicia,  Lydia,  Asqrria. 


14 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism, 


The 

intellect, 
imagination, 
and  taste  of 
the  Greeks. 


cellence  which  has  not  been  equalled  in  the  lapse 
of  two  thousand  years.  Again,  the  poetry  of 
Homer,  the  oratory  of  Demosthenes,  the  specu- 
lative power  of  Aristotle  and  Plato ;  are  not  these 
still  unequalled,  or  at  all  events  unsurpassed  ?  In 
intellect,  imagination,  taste,  the  Greeks,  we  venture 
to  say,  have  excelled  all  other  races.  They  were  in- 
ventive too;  but  their  originality  was  controlled 
by  an  exquisite  sense  of  fitness,  proportion,  har- 
mony. 

The  continuous  progress  of  art  and  science,  then, 
is  purely  imaginary.  Ejiowledge  has  increased; 
intellect  has  not.  It  was  of  yore  that  genius  plumed 
her  pinions  for  her  highest  flight ;  and  succeeding 
generations  have  gazed  enviously  upward,  as  they 
have  seen  her 


The 

continuous 

progress  of 

art  and 

science 

ptirely 

imaginary* 


The  Greeks 
not  likely 
to  be 


in  the 
higher 
intellectual 
endow- 
ments. 


Sailing  with  eupreme  dominion, 
Through  the  azure  deep  of  air. 

In  other  words.  Almighty  God  was  pleased  to  im- 
part to  the  ancient  Greeks  more  of  iuventive  and 
reasoning  power,  and  a  more  acute  perception 
of  the  beautiful,  than  to  any  other  race.  Nor  does 
it  appear  probable  that  any  future  generation  will 
surpass,  or  even  equal  them  in  the  higher  intel- 
lectual endowments. 

These  considerations  certainly  do  not  predispose 
us  to  expect  that  we  shall  ever  be  able  to  trace  a 
regular,  continuous  development  of  religion  among 
the  nations.     "We  need  not  be  surprised  if  we  find, 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism.  15 

in  many  cases,  not  improvement,  but  deterioration. 
And  there  is  not  the  slightest  ground  for  the  as- 
sertion that  Christianity  is  only  the  latest  addition 
to  an  edifice  that  has  been  slowly  rising  throughout 
the  ages,  and  to  which  most,  or  at  least  many, 
nations  have  contributed.  On  the  contrary,  it  can  ^^^g^^^ 
be  demonstrated  that,  when  we  distinguish  between  cilrisSinity 
reHgion  and  mere  intellectual  culture,^ 

1st.  There  is  no  truth  in  any  other  religion  which 
does  not  shine  forth  with  brighter  light  in 
Christianity ; 

2nd.  Christianity  has  borrowed  no  truth  from 
any  Pagan  creed  ;  and 

3rd.  Every  system  except  Christianity  mingles 
much  error  along  with  the  truth  that  it 
maintains.^ 

We  ought,  perhaps,  to  state  here  that  we  regard 

*  It  will  be  seen  as  we  proceed  that  we  do  not  overlook  the  Intellectual 

importance,  or  question  the  value,  of  intellectual  culture.     It  essentM*" 

is  an  essential  element  in  modem  civilization.  element  of 

Nor  let  it  be  forgotten  that  the  Socratic  ethics— especially  aa  civilizatioa 

elaborated  in  the  later  Stoic  schools — powerfully  affected   the  Socratic 

Roman  jurists,  and  through  them  the  legislation  of    modern  Et^"»- 
Europe. 

'  Whether  any  portion  of  the  Jewish  ritual  was  drawn  from    DerivatioB 
Egypt  is  a  different  question.     The  symbolism  that  is  seen  in    rituaT^*^ 
the   cherub   has   parallels   among   various   nations — ^Egyptiaus, 
Babylonians,  Assyrians,  Persians,  etc.     That  it  was  borrowed  ia 
not  provcil.    The  so-called  Egyptian  ark,  which  was  a  boat,  ba4 
a  very  ditfereut  use  from  the  Jewish  ark. 


16 


Gkristianity  and  Ancient  Paganism, 


Judaism 
and  Chris- 
tianity 
regarded 
as  one 
religion. 


The  Tract 
deals  with 
extinct 
forms  of 
Ancient 
Paganism. 


Judaism  and  Christianity — the  former  as  contained 
in  the  Old  Testament,  the  latter  in  the  New — as 
one  religion, — one  in  the  sense  in  which  the  rosehud 
and  the  expanded  rose,  the  "  bright  consummate 
flower,"  are  only  one.  Or  we  may  say,  they  are 
related  to  each  other,  as  dawn  is  to  sunrise. 

Our  Tract  deals  with  "  Christianity  and  Ancient 
Paganism.'*  By  Ancient  Paganism  we  here  mean 
those  forms  of  Paganism  which  existed  in  ancient 
days,  but  are  now  extinct.  There  are  other  systems 
which  existed  in  antiquity  and  have  survived  to 
the  present  time.  The  most  noted  of  these  are 
Zoroastrianism,  Hinduism,  Buddhism,  and  Con- 
fucianism.    We  do  not  treat  of  these.  ^ 

It  were  well,  if  it  were  only  possible,  to  discuss 
the  ancient  religions  in  a  strictly  chronological 
order.  We  could  then  better  ascertain  how  much 
or  how  little  the  later  systems  had  been  indebted 
to  the  earlier.  We  shall  keep  this  in  mind ;  but  it 
is  difficult,  in  some  cases,  to  state  the  historio 
sequence. 


Extinct 

Pagan 

religions. 


II. 

The  great  religions  of  Pagan  antiquity  that  are 
now  extinct  were  the  following  :  the  Egyptian ;  the 
Babylonian  and  Assyrian ;  the  Phoenician  ;  the 
Lydian  and  Phrygian  ;  the  Hittite  ;  the  Greek,  and 

*Each  of  these  systems  forms    the    subject   of    a    separate 
Tract  in  the  Present  Day  Series  (Nos.  25,  33,  46,  ISl 


GhHstianity  ana  Ancient  Paganism,  J  7 

the  Roman.  The  religions  of  the  Syrians,  Moabites, 
and  other  races  in  and  around  Palestine  may  be 
considered  along  with  that  of  the  Phoenicians. 
Those  of  the  chief  uncivilized  races  of  ancient 
Europe — Celtic,  Teutonic,    and   Sclavonian — must  The 

A  ^  religion 

be  treated,  if  at  all,  very  briefly,  seeing  that  our  ^'gj"'-^" 
knowledge  of  them  is  still  very  scanty. 

1.    The   Egyptian   System. 

We  begin  with  the  Egyptian  system.    Civilization 
seems  to  have  commenced  in  the  region  of  Meso-  '^he  earliest 

*-'  monumenta 

potamia ;   but  the  earliest  monuments   of  it  that  ch-iiiiiation 
have  come  down  to  us  are  connected  with  the  valley  withThe*^ 

of  the  Nile.  Se  Kile. 

The  religion  of  Egypt  presents  very  perplexing 
problems.     One  of  these  is  its  extraordinary  incon-   \^^^^^^ 
sistency.     In  some  writings  we  meet  with  ideas  of  oi-Vgy^.°° 
deity   which  are   excessively   refined — refined  till 
they  have  become  impalpable  and  colourless;  in 
others,  we  find  polytheism  in  as  debased  aform  as 
tliat  in  which  it  appears  among  the  lowest  savages. 
More  remarkable  still,  we  find  these  two  things  not 
(mly  existing  at  the  same  time,  but  expressed  in 
the  same  writings.    Hence,  vehement  debate  among  vehement 
Egyptologists.     Most  of  them  hold  that  the  refined  among 

Egyptolo- 

conceptions  came  first,  and  that  the  latter  form  was  ei'*^' 
a  corruption  gradually  introduced.     It  is  at  least* 
certain,  as  one  of  the  strongest  supporters  ^  of  the 
^  M.  MA8{)eru 
0 


18 


CkHstianity  and  Ancient  Paganism. 


Monothe- 
istic ideas 
probably 
the  first  in 
Eg-ypl. 


Two 

distinct 

races 

l>robably 

originally 

iiiliabited 

Kf,'ypt. 


opposite  theory  admits,  that  monotheistic  iaeas 
made  their  way  very  early  into  Egypt.  It  appears 
to  us  that  the  balance  of  the  evidence  is  in  favour 
of  their  having  been  there  first. 

But  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  population  of 
Egypt  consisted  of  two  races  originally  distinct, 
one  mentally  lower,  probably  African,  and  another 
much  higher,  probably  Asiatic  Shemites.  In  that 
case  the  religion  was  composite  and  inconsistent 
from  the  beginning. 

The  refined  system  has  by  most  been  called  mono- 
theism; by  others,  henotheism.  Others  still  caU 
it  pantheism.  The  dispute  need  not  surprise  us ; 
for  the  conceptions  expressed  in  Egyptian  monu- 
ments are  vague,  confused,  conflicting ;  nor  does 
it  appear  probable  that  any  deeper  study  will  ever 
prove  them  to  be  mutually  consistent. 

Sun-worship  unquestionably  appears  early.  This, 
and  the  reverence  of  metaphysical  deities,  are 
mingled  together  even  on  the  oldest  monuments. 

Above  all  systems  that  ever  were,  the  Egyp- 
tian abounded  in  symbolism.  Every  idea,  every 
shadow  of  an  idea,  had  to  be  represented — made 
visible.  The  faith  had^hen  to  pay  the  penalty  of 
this  mental  weakness.  The  sign,  ere  long,  concealed 
the  thing  signified — it  became  its  substitute. 

Many  writers  contend  that  the  higher  classes— 
or  ai  all  events,  tne  priests — were  acquainted  with 
a  truly  spiritual  system,  which  they  carefully  con- 


The 

conceptions 

in   Egyptian 

monuiuents 

vague, 

confused, 

conflicting. 


Early 

appearance 
of  Sun- 
worship. 


Abundance 
of  symbol- 


A  concealed 
spiritHal 
eysiem 
ascribed  to 
the  priests. 


Vhriatianity  and  Ancient  Paganism.  19 

cealed  from  the  common  people.  This  is  possible. 
Populus  riilt  dccipi et  decipiatur'^  is  a  hideous  maxim 
which,  doubtless,  has  had  sway  in  various  lands. 
But  thej-e  is  no  evidence  of  the  intentional  conceal- 
ment of  highei  truths  on  the  part  of  the  Eg\^tian 
priests.  It  was  no  function  of  theirs  to  educate  JJ^ncti^®  q^ 
the  people  ;  and  probably  the  masses  could  not  rise  Egyptian 
above  the  lowest  form  of  brute- worship.     Nor  did  educate  tha 

people. 

the  priests  and  the  higher  classes  themselves  really 
rise  abo^'e  it ;  they  only  succeeded,  in  a  way  difficult  The  pnesta 
for  us  to  conceive,  in  mingling  higher  and  lower  \l^^  ^^ 
conceptions,   and  so  identifying  the  divinity  with  conceptions 
the  brute.     The  religion  changed  ;  it  changed  more  the"(ivinity 
than  is  at  first  apparent,  for  the  Eg}'ptians  were  very  bmte. 
conservative  of  ancient  forms;  but  the  degrading 
brute- worship  endured  as  long  as  any  part  of  the 
religion.     The   same  animals,  however,   were  not 
adored  over  the  whole  of  the  countr}' ;  some  which 
were  worshipped  at  one  place  were  pursued  and 
killed  at  another  ;  and  hence  violent  disputes  often 
ending  in  bloodshed.     But  we  need  not  pursue  the 
subiect  farther.     We  merely   add  that  even  the  greeks  and 

•^  •'  ,  Romans 

Greeks  and   the   Eomans   were  shocked    by  the  Egyp^an^ 
Egyptian  worship.     Plularch  gravely  reprobates  its  ^°"^p- 
"  degrading  rites ;  "   and  the  poet  Juvenal  levels 
against  it  his  sharpest  shafts  of  ridicule.^ 

'  The  people  wish  to  be  deceived,  and  let  them  be  so. 

*  Who  haa  uot  heard,  where  Egyi-)t'a  realuia  are  uamed, 
What  tnonster  gods  her  frantio  sons  have  framed  f  etc* 


20 


Christianity  a  ad  Ancient  Paganism. 


The 

Egyptian 

religion 

giew  more 

and  more 

mystical 

and 


In  the  course  of  its  long  existence  the  religion 
oecame  more  and  more  mystical,  and  more  and 
more  magical.  Thus,  in  the  "  Book  of  the  Dead," 
the  most  remarkable  document  which  has  come  down 
from  the  ancient  days  of  Egypt,  comparatively 
little  is  said  of  duties,  but  much  of  spells  and  in- 
cantations. 

There  are,  no  doubt,  as  was  to  be  expected, 
many  good  moral  precepts  scattered  here  and 
there,  in  books  and  on  monuments.  But  "the 
morality  remained  stationary  at  the  elementary 
stage ;  and  its  moral  maxims  never  rise  to  the 
rank  of  principles."^  "The  morality  must  have 
been  totally  independent  of  the  religion."^  No 
divorce  could  have  been  more  unhappy  ;  and  we 
need  not  wonder  that  the  naked  ethical  maxim 
often  remained  impotent,  while  "  a  thousand 
superstitions  took  the  place  of  the  attempt  to  lead 
an  honest  life."  ^ 

The  priests,  in  the  original  constitution  of 
Egypt,  had  comparatively  little  power.  That 
power,  however,  steadily  increased,  until  every- 
thing in  life  was  ruled  by  them.  In  Upper  Egypt 
they,  by-and-by,  usurped  full  regal  authority; 
and  they  retained  it  long. 


Good  moral 
precepts 
here  and 
there  in 
books  and 
monuments. 


The 

morality 
stationary 
at  the 
elementary 
stage,  and' 
independent 
of  religion. 


More  use 
of  priestly 
power. 


»  So  Prof.  Tiele. 
2  Poole,  in  Encycl.  Britan.     The  same  writer  says  that  we 
have,  in  the   "Book   of  the  Dead,"  "a  glimpse  of  truth  seen 
through  thick   mists  peopled  with  phautoma  of  basest  super- 
rtition." 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism.  21 


orty  of 
women 


Women  in  Egypt  were  allowed  mucli  liberty  ;  Lib 

,  .  ,  .  won. 

but  evidently  it  often  ran  into  licence.     This  was  often  ran 

•'  into  license. 

especially  the  case  during  the  pilgrimage  to 
Bubastis,  which  Herodotus  tells  us  was  by  far  the 
most  popular  and  magnificent  of  Egyptian  festivals. 
Evil  ran  riot  during  this  great  celebration.^  Truly, 
religion  and  morality  were  separable  and  separate 
in  ancient  Egypt.  Monogamy  was  the  rule,  but 
concubinage  was  frequent.  Brother  and  sister 
often  intermarried. 

And  now,  is  there  any  element  of  truth  which  Egypt 

•'  contributed 

Egypt  contributed   towards  the   establishment  of  ""tf^JS®"' 
the  final  form  of  religion?     We  have  seen  that  SbiiSimtnt 
this  is  frequently  maintained  ;  but  the  belief  seems  form  of 
to  have  no  foundation.     If,  as  Diodorus  held,  the 
Greeks  derived  their  rehgion   from   Egypt,  they 
entirely   changed  it;   they  humanized   the   gods, 
instead  of  keeping  them  brutal.     The  idea  ,that 
Moses,  who  was  skilled  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  ?u^®  ^^.®* 

'  that  Moses 

Egyptians,  drew  any  of  his  lofty  conceptions  of  orMsTdfty 
Jehovah  from  Egyptian  sources,  was  often  loudly  ITjtlovSti 
asserted  in  former  days ;  but  it  seems  now  generally  Egyptian 

sources 

abandoned  even  by  critics  of  the  negative  school,  abandoned 

''  o  *    even  by 

like  KueneD.     Wellhausen,  too,  distinctly  affirms  ^^^^® 
that  "Moses   gave  no  new  idea  of   God  to  his 
people.      The  question  whence  he  derived  it  could 
not  possibly  be  worse  answered  than  by  a  reference 

*  Tiele,  Egyptian  Religum,  p.  192. 


22 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism. 


Wellhausen 
maintains 
that 

Jehovah  has 
nothing 
in  common 
with  the 
deities  of 
Egypt. 


The 

worship  of 
Osiris  and 
Ra  formed 
the  basis 
of  the 
Egyptian 
religion. 


to  his  relations  with  the  priestly  caste  and  theii 
wisdom."  He  maintains  .that  Jehovah  has 
nothing  in  common  with  the  deities  of  Egypt.  Of 
course,  we  do  not  forget  that  the  multitude  who 
had  long  been  familiar  with  the  brute  worship 
around  them,  began  to  adore  the  golden  calf ;  but 
we  know  that  the  degrading  rite  was  suppressed 
with  a  sternness  of  indignation  which  must  have 
profoundly  impressed  the  whole  of  that  generation 
and  many  succeeding  ones. 

The  religion,  as  has  been  said,  sustained  great 
changes.^  In  the  oldest  monuments  Osiris  and  E-a 
are  mentioned  ;  their  worship  formed  the  basis  of 
the  religion.  Each  is  a  divine  being  revealing 
himself  in  the  sun.^  They  are  often  confounded 
with  each  other.  Afterwards,  eight  deities  were 
classed  in  the  first  order ;  twelve  in  the  second ;  and 
four  in  the  third.  The  highest  of  the  first  order 
was  Amn  or  Amun  (usually  said  to  mean  concealed). 
He  has  properly  the  form  of  man  ;  he  sits  with 
crown  and  sceptre  on  a  throne,  and  holds  in  his 
hand  a  kind  of  cross,  which  is  the  s3mabol  of  life. 

*■  De  Roug^  and  not  a  few  others  trace  the  high  Bpiritual 
conceptions  of  God  to  primeval  Revelation  ;  and  they  point  to 
evidences  of  a  gradual  corruption  of  these.  Tiele  admits  that 
the  most  ancient  system  was  the  simplest  and  purest.  And  yet 
he  calls  the  corruption  of  this  *'  a  retrogression  to  the  earlier 
stand-point."  He  thus  holds  that  purity  first  grew  out  of 
impurity,  and  then  impurity  out  of  purity.  The  explanation 
ia  forced.     De  Rough's  is  far  more  simple  and  conaistenl. 

'  Tiels,  pw  €k. 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism.  23 

He  was  often  united  with  Ea,  and  became  Amun- 
Ra — the  hidden  one  who  is  revealed  in  the  sun. 
Most  of  the  deities  had  animals'  heads,  which  were 
probably  symbols  of  qualities. 

By  the  time  of  Herodotus  Osiris  had  become  ^™  *^5_ 

•^  chief  deity 

the  chief  deity.     Isis  was  his  mother,  sister,  and  jlme^of 
wife.     Her  worship  steadily  increased.     The  myth  ^^•^''^'^<'*^- 
of  Osiris  was  the  mother-myth  in  Esrypt.     He  was  The  myth 

,  ,  .  .  of  Osiris 

said  to   have  been   killed   and   buried,  his   body  the  mother- 

•^     myth  m 

ha^dng  been  cut  in  pieces,  which  were  scattered,  ^^^p*- 

He  revived,  and  became  the  judge  of  the  dead. 

The  future  life  greatly  occupied  the  mind  of  the  ^Jif  gJ^eSy 

Egyptians.     As  time  went  on,  the  myth  of  Osiris  JJ;™p^^^ 

became  more  terrible ;  and  the  views  entertained  mfnd/^ 

of  a  future  existence  more  and  more  gloomy.     In 

the  "  Book  of  the  Dead "  the  adventures  of  the  P®  _^  , 

departed 

departed  soul  came  to  be  described  with  appalling  fp^oj^  o?* 
minuteness  of  detail.  It  is  important  to  note  that 
there  was  no  idea  of  God  as  forgiving  sin.  The 
wicked  soul  was  devoured  by  serpents,  cast  into 
flames,  or  otherwise  destroyed.  The  good  man 
himself  had  to  encounter  sore  trials  in  the  other 
world.  Snares  lay  in  his  path ;  monsters  assailed 
hioa.  His  safety  lay  in  grasping  the  sacred  spear, 
and  repeating  magical  words  from  the  sacred 
books.  Thus,  at  last  he  reached  the  happy  fields. 
.  in  which  he  could  labour  as  on  earth,  but  reap 
harvests  far  more  abundant  than  he  had  done 
before. 


24 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism. 


The 

principle 
of  moral 
retribution 
accepted. 


In  estimating  the  character  of  the  Egyptian 
system,  the  doctrine  of  a  future  life  must,  by  no 
means,  be  left  out  of  aocount.  The  principle  of 
moral  retribution  was  accepted ;  and  if  Greece 
really  borrowed  it  from  Egypt,  she  did  not  re- 
tain so  firm  a  hold  of  it.  But  we  would  gladly 
know  how  the  belief  affected  men  during  life, 
and  in  the  prospect  of  death.  The  Egyptian 
deities  were  strictly,  sternly  just.  What  then,  as 
he  faced  the  regions  of  Amenti — the  other  world 
— were  the  thoughts  of  a  man  who  had,  on  the 
whole,  sought  to  live  virtuously,  but  who,  like 
all  of  us,  had  "bitter  thoughts  of  conscience 
bom?"  We  remember  the  triumphant  language 
of  the  prophet  Micah — "  Who  is  a  God  like  unto 
Thee,  that  pardoneth  iniquity?"  and  even,  in  the 
earliest  days  of  Israel,  the  mercy  of  Jehovah  was 
declared  in  equally  emphatic  terms  with  His 
righteousness.^  Now,  of  mercifulness,  in  the 
sense  of  forgiving  sin,  there  is  no  trace  whatever 
in  the  Egyptian  conception  of  the  divine.  Surely 
a  most  marked  deficiency. 

The  strong  impression  which  the  future  world 
made  on  the  Egyptian  mind  is  very  noteworthy. 
Whence  could  it  spring  ?  The  usual  explanation 
is  that  it  was  "nothing  but  a  mystic  representa- 
tion, arising  out  of  sun-worship."  "     The  sun  sank 


No  trace 
of  merci- 
fulness in 
the  sense 
of  forgiving 
sin  in  the 
Egyptian 
conception 
of  the 
Divine. 

The  usual 
explanation 
of  the 
impression 
of  the 
future 
world  on  the 
E^ptian 


See  Exodus  sxxiv.  6,  7.] 


»  Tiele,  p.  70. 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism.  25 

in  the  west  and  disappeared ;  he  died.  Yet  he 
was  not  destroyed;  he  moved  across  the  dark 
under-world,  and  soon,  with  undiminished  bright- 
ness, "  flamed  in  the  forehead  of  the  morning 
sky."  ^  So  every  good  man  would  triumph  over 
death.  Such  is  the  explanation ;  but  it  seems  to  Jxpianation 
halt.  For  though  day  succeeds  night,  night  again  *'*^"^" 
succeeds  day  ;  and  if  the  solar  phenomenon  had 
been  the  foundation  of  the  belief,  we  should  have 
expected  a  balanced  dualism,  victory  and  defeat 
alternating  in  a  perpetually  renewed  struggle  be- 
tween light  and  darkness,  life  and  death,  good*  and 
evil.  We  believe  that  in  Amun,  the  "hidden  one,"  An  early 

conception 

we   can  still    trace   an   early   conception   of    the  g{,*I?^f^g 
supreme     divinity,     brought,    probably,    by     the  A,nu"-the 
Shemites  from  the  plains  of  Shinar.     The  sun  was 
naturally  turned  to  as  a  representative  of  Amun ; 
and  they  were  often  blended  into  one — Amun  Ra, 
the  hidden  and  revealed  in  one.     The  other  deities 

Belief  in 

seem  to  have  been  personified  attributes.     With  a  future 

••  existence 

regard   to  belief  in  a  future   existence  it  seems  n^g^^ssariiy 
necessarily  to  accompany  a  belief  in  deity.  J^company 

We    cannot    say   that    the    character    of    the  deity!^  "* 
Egyptians    stood    high,    either    intellectually    or  The 
morally.     No  writing  of  theirs  survives  which  be-   of  the 

Egyptians. 

tokens  genius  or  even  deep  thought.     They  had 

massive,   not  graceful,    architecture.       Art    soon 

became  stationary.      In  later  ages  there  was  an 

1  Milton,  in  Lycidas. 


26  Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism. 

incongruous   blending   of   Egyptian    and   Grecian 
Elements  in  architocture.     Plodding,  patient,  industrious,  they 

Kgyptian 

character,  doubtloss  wsre.  But  they  were  also  tyrannical ; 
given  to  wine ;  and  careless  in  morals.  Some 
add,  and  not  without  reason,  "  lying,  thieving, 
treacherous,  cringing,  and  intensely  prejudiced 
against  strangers.'*^ 
The  In   Egypt  we  may  behold   a   despot  ruling   a 

*"o  ,e^®  nation  of  slaves.  The  sovereign  reigned  as  repre- 
senting divinity.  Limitation  of  his  power  was 
simply  inconceivable.^  In  no  nation,  ancient  or 
modern — not  in  ancient  Assyria  or  modern  Turkey 
— was  "  the  right  divine  of  kings  "  ^  so  deeply  im- 
planted in  the  mind  of  the  subjects. 


2.   Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Systems. 

^e  religion       ^^j^  come  now  to  spcak  of  the  reHgion  of  Babylon 
and  Assyria,  and  Assyria. 

The  Tigro-Euphrates  valley,  with  its  streams  and 

rich  alluvial  plains,  was  a  very  early  seat  of  civiHza- 

tion.     Monuments  exist  which  may  carry  us  as  far 

Inti  iiity       ^^^^  ^  three  thousand  years  before  the  Christian 

monuments,   ^ra,    or   probably   farther.     The   first  inhabitants 

^  So  R.  S.  Poole,  in  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible. 

*  Tiele  points  out  how  unlike  Egypt  was  to  Israel  in  tliia 
respect.  The  existence  of  the  prophetic  order  secured  to  Israel 
almost  a  constitutional  govei-nment,  or  its  equivalent. 

^  The  right  divine  of  kings  to  govern  wrong." 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism,  27 

appear,  from  the  evidence  of  language,  to  have  been   The  first 

m  •  1  1  r»T  •    •  1      •        1  inhabitants 

Turanian,  rather   than   Shemitic — their   language  Turanian. 
being  of  the  Ural-Altaic  class.      The  name  Akka- 
dian (mountaineer)  is  now  usually  given  to  them. 
Another  important  tribe,  evidently  Shemitic,  then  a  shemitic 
pressed  into  those  fertile  regions— probably  from  fjos?*^  *"**' 
the  Syro- Arabian  desert.     The   two  races  appear  ^'^^^°^^- 
to  have  mingled  in  Southern  Chaldsea,  and  a  high 
degree  of  civilization  was  early  attained. 

Their  reliorion   bore   abundant  traces   of    their  Traces  of 

*-*  double 

double  origin.  The  Akkadian  faith — like  Turanian  Jjjp^ugior 
systems  generally— was  Animistic  or  Shamanistic, 
that  is  to  say,  fundamentally,  spirit- worship.  Every 
obJQct  in  nature,  whether  animate  or  inanimate, 
was  supposed  to  be  ruled  by  a  spirit.     Malignant 
spirits  were  especially  numerous;   many  of   them 
ghosts,   that  is,   the   spirits   of  the   dead.       The 
spirits,  however,  were  all  subject  to  the  control  of 
a  priest,  or  wizard.     By  the  power  of  spells  and 
incantations,  the  wizard  could  compel  them  to  do 
his  bidding.     The   Akkadian   liturgies  that  have  '{^^ 
been   preserved    are   almost   all   exorcisms — mere  ^iT'^"^®' 
magical  formula).  ''''''^'^'■ 

The  Shemitic  race,  that  came  in  later  and  largely  The 
blended  with  the  Akkadians,  had  a  religion  of  a  race  had 

^  a  religion 

higher   type.     M.   Renan   has   asserted    that    all  j£  g,^^^^*'' 
Shemites  had   a  monotheistic   instinct ;    but   the 
assertion  cannot  be  accepted  unless  the  term  mono- 
theism be  divested  of  its  ordinary  meaning.     Most 


28  GhHstianity  and  Ancient  Paganism. 

Mest  of  the    of   the   Sliemitic   races   have   heen    conspicuously 
races  idolatrous,   as  well  as  polytheistic ;    and  if  it  be 

idolatrous 

an4  poly-      said   that   one  deity  was  almost  always  regarded 

as  superior  to  the  rest,  the  same  assertion  may  he 

made  regarding  other  than  Shemitic  peoples.^ 

The  sun-  The   suu-god   held   a   high    place    among    the 

who^^''"^^'^^^  Shemites  who  occupied  Chaldaea  ;  and  the  moon- 

cSdffia.       god,  one  almost  equally  high.     In  countries  like 

Arabia  and  Chaldaea,  the  magnificence  of  the  starry 

heavens,  and  the  moon  "  walking  in  her  brightness," 

compel  attention  by  their  mystery,  their   beauty, 

and  their  beneficence.^     We  cannot  be  surprised  if, 

with  the  mass,  admiration  passed  into  adoration. 

Astronomy  was  studied,  and  it  became  astrology — 

one  might  say,  inevitably  so. 

The  Babylonian  faith  continued  to  show  clear 

Bab  Ion        traces  of  its  twofold  origin.     Life  in  Babylon  must 

have   been    "  almost    intolerable  ;  "  ^    superstition 

conjured  up  a  thousand  terrors ;  unseen  malignant 

beings  were  everywhere,  and  everj^where  plotting 

The  early      mischief.     Hcuce,  masric  early  became  developed 

development  '         ,  o  j  r 

of  magic  -j^^Q  g^  regular  science.  Divination,  augury,  fortune- 
telling,  necromancy,  and  kindred  base  beliefs  flour- 
ished in  foul  luxuriance. 

*  Thus,  Herr  Jellinghaus,  a  missionary  who  spent  years 
among  the  Kols  in  India,  says  they  may  almost  be  classed  as 
monotheists.  They  believe  in  innumerable  spirits,  but  in  the 
sun-spirit  as  supreme. 

'  Very  notable  in  this  connexion  are  the  words  in  Job  xxxL 
26-28. 

»  So  Prof.  Sayce. 


court  of 
Nebuchad- 
nezzar. 


Ch^tianity  and  Ancient  Paganism.  29 

"Stand  uow,"  exclaims  the  prophet  Isaiah,  addressing  Baby- 
lon, *'  with  thine  enchantments  and  with  the  multitude  of  thy 
sorceries,  wherein  thou  hast  laboured  from  thy  youth."  ^ 

The  prophet  also  calls  on  the  "  astrologers,  the 
star-gazers,  and  the  monthly  prognosticators/'  to  The  place 

.of  inter- 
foretell,  if  they   can,  and    avert,    the   destruction  preters  of 

'  •'  dreams,  etc, 

which  was  fast  overtaking  the  haughty  city.  It  **  *^® 
would  appear  that  in  the  court  of  Nehuchadnezzar, 
the  highest  place  was  given  to  expounders  of 
dreams,  soothsayers,  and  astrologers;  and  that 
only  after  them  came  the  civil  administrators  of 
the  empire. 

The  doctrine  of  one  God  shines  out  clear  and  The 

doctrine  of 

unmistakable  in  various  important  documents.     In  9^e  God 

^  m  vanouB 

Smith's  Chaldean  Account  of  Genesis  this  is  very  SmSte. 
fully  shown. 

"At  the  head  of  the  Babylonian  theology  stands  Anu — a 
deity  who  is  sometimes  identified  with  the  heavens — sometimes 
considered  as  the  Ruler  and  God  of  heaven." 


In  one  important  part  of  the  tablet  recording  J» 


the 
tablet 


God.' 


creation,  only  one  God  is  mentioned,  and  simply  as  creatiJn^the 
"the  God.*'     The  fragments  of  the  tablet  "might  ooli^ 
belong  to  the  purest  system  of  religion.*'     These  ^s^°  S»e 
are  important  statements.     It  would  be  very  inter- 
esting if  we  could  determine  the  date  of  the  re- 
markable  document   on   which    Mr.   Smith   thus 
comments.     Professor  Sayce  thinks  that  the  poem 
on  creation  (Chaldeati  Genesis)  is  not  probably  older 
than  the  days  of  Assur-bani-pal,  the  grandson  of 
*■  Luuah  xlvii  12. 


30 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism. 


The  date 
uf  the 
poem  on 
Creation, 


Sennacherib — which  would  bring  it  down  to  the 
7th  century  b.c.  ;  but  he  also  holds  that  similar 
views  prevailed  at  a  much  earlier  date  among  the 
Akkadians.  The  professor  speaks  of  the  time 
when  monotheistic  ideas  "  arose."  The  question, 
however,  is  whether  they  had  not  existed  from  the 
beginning,  at  least  among  the  Shemitic  portion  of 
the  people.  We  believe  that  God  had  "  never  left 
Himself  without  witness,"  and  that  there  was,  in 
addition  to  this,  a  monotheistic  tradition.  There, 
doubtless,  was  a  vacillation,  an  oscillation,  between 
monotheism  and  polytheism ;  but  the  former  belief, 
though  frequently  overlaid,  was  never  wholly  ex- 
tinguished. Such  is  the  inference  which  we  feel 
ourselves  compelled  to  draw  from  all  the  available 
evidence. 

The  worship  of  Anu  was  gradually  superseded. 
His  daughter  was  Istar  (Ashtaroth  or  Astarte),  con- 
nected with  whom  there  was  a  far  more  sensual 
worship  than  that  of  Anu.  This  in  time  supplanted 
the  older  and  purer  system.^  All  this  is  easily 
understood  ;  but  if  we  hold  that  the  worship  of  one 
God  arose  out  of  gross  polytheism,  and  then  sank 
back  into  it,  we  are  landed  in  inextricable  diffi- 
culties. 


Ood's 

witness  to 

riimself 

and 

monotheistic 

tradition. 


Mono- 
theistio 
belief 
never  ex- 
dngnished. 


The 

difficulty 
of  supposing 
that  the 
worship  of 
one  God 
arose  out 
of  poly- 
theism and 
then  sank 
back  into 
it 


^  "  The  worship  of  Istar  became  one  of  the  darkest  features  of 
Babylonian  theology.  As  this  worship  increased  in  favour,  it 
gradually  superseded  that  of  Anu,  until  in  time  his  temple — 
the  house  of  heaven— came  to  be  regarded  as  the  temple  v' 
Vemis." — 0.  Smith, 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism.  o\ 

\VTien  the  great  monotheistic  idea  is  surrendered,  The  muiti- 

plicHtioii  of 

deities  easily  multiply.     "We  need  not  give  a  Ijst  deities 
of  Babylonian  gods.    Merodach  seems  to  have  been  g^  ™e^^er 
a  national  divinity,  the  protector  of  Babylon  ;  and  JheS^^ 
with  him  was  probably  identified  Bel,  whose  name 
is  generally  supposed  to  be  a  variant  form  of  Baal, 
i.e.,  master,  owner. 

Certain  parts  of  Babylonian  worship  were  exces-  Jj^J^!^ 
eively  impure.  There  was  a  law  in  Babylon  that  worehip. 
every  woman,  once  in  her  life,  should  prostitute 
herself  to  any  stranger  that  asked  her  in  the  temple 
of  the  chief  goddess.  Even  Herodotus  deuounces 
the  practice  as  "  in  the  highest  degree  abominable." 
It  seems  to  have  been  from  Babylon  that  the  hor- 
rible pollution  passed  over  into  Greece  and  Sicily, 
and  various  other  places. 

The  Assyrian  nation  was  greatly  influenced  by  The 
the  Babylonian,  which  evidently  was  the  older  of  ot  the 
the  two.^     The  people  have  been  well  called  "  the  ^^^o^- 
Romans  of  Asia."*     They  were  a  nation   of  fero- 
cious warriors,  in  whose  nature  cruelty  seems   to 
have  been  ingrained.     They  blinded,  impaled,  tor- 
tured, or  flayed  alive,  their  prisoners  ;  while  the 
Eg)T)tians,  we  may  note,  were   by  no   means  so 
merciless.     Their  character  was  reflected  in  their 
religion.     Human  sacrifices  were  frequent. 

Magic,  sorcery,  and  divination  were  hardly  less  Jjjf*,^ 
prevalent  in  Assyria  than  in  Babylon.     The  pro-  '^^^ 
'  Aa  stated  in  Oened*  z.  11.  '  By  Q.  Hawlioaon. 


32 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism, 


phet  Nahum,  in  his  magnificent  description  of  the 
siege  and  capture  of  Nineveh,  the  capital,  styles  it 
"the  mistress  of  witchcrafts/* 


The  chief 
divinity 
of  the 
Phoenicians. 


Their 
worship. 


Hamsm 
sacrifices. 


3.  Phcenician  System. 

"We  next  speak  of  the  Phoenicians,  whc  were  early 
distinguished  as  an  enterprizing  commercial  people. 
Wo  are  still  douhtful  as  to  their  origin  and  their 
relation  to  the  other  Canaanite  races.  Their  chief 
divinity  was  Baal — also  called  Moloch,  who  seems  to 
have  been  the  sun-god.  The  sun  could  be  viewed  as 
a  beneficent  being,  or  as  a  relentless  tyrant  flaming 
with  wrath ;  and  generally,  or  at  all  events  fre- 
quently, he  was  regarded  in  the  latter  aspect. 
Only  blood  —human  blood — could  appease  the  anger 
of  the  deity  when  it  was  deeply  roused.  Hence 
the  priests  scourged  and  gashed  themselves ;  and 
liis  votaiies  strove  to  propitiate  him  by  sacrificing 
their  best  and  dearest.  Milton's  celebrated  de- 
scription is  not  drawn  in  colours  over-dark : 

Moloch,  horrid  king,  bedewed  with  blood 

Of  infant  sacrifice  and  parents'  tears, 

Though,  for  the  noise  of  drums  and  cymbals  loud. 

The  children's  cries  unheard  that  passed  through  fire 

To  his  grim  idol. 

The  firstborn  especially  were  thus  sacrificed,  and 
on  occasions  of  great  public  calamity  multitudes  of 
youths  of  the  noblest  families  were  burnt  alive. 
Thus  at  Carthage,  which  was  colonized  from  Tyre, 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism.  33 

wlien  Agathocles  had  inflicted  a  severe  defeat  on 
the  citizens,  at  least  two  hundred  children  of  the 
nohlest  hirth  were  sacrificed  ;  ^  and  when,  in  turn, 
the  Carthaginians  had  gained  a  victory,  their  most 
beautiful  captives  were  in  Hke  manner  offered  up. 
Our  readers  ynB.  remember  the  frequent  mention  Jlstament 
of  this  dreadful  rite  in  the  Old  Testament.  Among  re'«r«°«*- 
Shemitic  races,  the  Hebrews  alone  were  taught  to 
hold  it  in  abhorrence. 

This  terrible  hardness  of  character  was  accom- 
panied— might  we  not  say  caused  ?  ^ — ^by  another  JiyfoitL* 
leading  characteristic  of  Phoenician  worship — its  rhoeniciM 
shameful  lasciviousness.  It  equalled  in  this  respect, 
if  it  did  not  surpass,  the  Babylonian  system.  We 
cannot  dwell  on  the  disgusting  subject.  The  old 
Akkadian  religion  had  been  marked  by  cruelty  ; 
but  impurity,  as  an  essential  part  of  worship,  was 
foreign  to  it.  This  deplorable  distinction  clung  es- 
pecially to  Shemitic  races — Israel  alone  excepted,      israei  aione 

f^  •'  ^  among 

The  characteristics  of  the  three  religicfns  we  have  raceTfree 


from 


in  woisnip. 


mentioned — Babylonian,  Assyrian,  and  Phoenician  jm^rf 
— belonged  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  to  the  cognate 

*  The  language  of  Diodorus  u  not  quite  clear  ;  but,  as  Grote 
observeb,  the  number  of  children  offered  up  was  certainly  200, 
and  probably  500,     History  of  Greece,  vni.,  p.  604, 

•  "Lust  hard  by  hate."  So  Milton.  Or,  as  Robert  Burn* 
has  it — 

I  waive  the  quantum  of  the  sin, 

The  hazard  of  concealing  ; 
But  oh  !   it  hardens  all  within, 

And  petrifies  the  feeling. 


shi 


34 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism. 


The  moral 
degradation 
of  the 
seven 
nations  of 
Canaan. 


The  purity 

of  Israel- 

itish  relig:ion 

inexplicable 

on 

naturalistic 

principles. 


races — such  as  Ammonites,  Moabites,  etc.  The 
"  seven  nations  of  Canaan  "  are  mentioned  in  the 
Pentateuch  as  all  alike  sunk  in  the  depths  of  moral 
corruption ;  so  that  the  land  was  ready  to  "  spue 
them  out."  This  renders  the  severely  pure  morahty 
of  the  religion  of  Israel  truly  remarkable,  and,  on 
naturalistic  principles,  inexplicable.  We  have  no 
right  to  suppose  that,  in  original  temperament  or 
character,  the  Hebrews  differed  radically  from 
their  brethren.  By  what  conceivable  process,  then, 
of  natural  evolution  could  their  religion  arise  P 


The  chief 

systems 
in  the 
interior 
of  Asia 
Minor. 


A.88yrian 
.deas  widely 
diSuaed. 


4.   Ltdian   and  Phrygian   Ststbha. 

We  come  now  to  speak  of  the  chief  systems 
that  prevailed  in  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor,i 
particularly  in  Lydia  and  Phrygia.  In  describing 
these,  we  require  to  state  carefully  the  dates  to 
which  we  refer ;  for,  in  those  regions,  the  dis- 
placement of  races  and  religions  was  very  frequent. 
Turanians,  Shemites,  Aryans,  all  clashed  together 
within  the  peninsula.  The  Turanians  came  first. 
But  from  the  I2th  to  the  7th  century  b.c,  the 
predominant  power  in  Asia  Minor  was  Assyria; 
aud  Assyrian  (or  Babylonian)  ideas  on  religion 
were,  in  consequence,  widely  diffused,  extending 
even  to  the  ^gean  Sea.  The  Persian  dominion 
followed;   and  Zoroastrian  rites  to  a  considerable 

'  Strabo,  who  knew  the  region  well,  speaks  es|>ecially  -^f 
Oappadooia  as  haviug  adopted  Persian  rites  to  a  large  extent 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism.  35 

extent   superseded,  or   rather,   bleuded   with    the  zoroaatrian 

.  .  .  rites 

Assyrian,  aud    also  with    the    still    more  ancient  superseded 

•^  '  or  blended 

Turanian  worship,  which  had  never  been  wholly  XJ^^y^ian 
extinguished.      It    probably  was    from    their  Tu-  ^fh^tu^ 
ranian   descent   that    the  religious   of  Lydia  auc'  Turamaa. 
Phrygia  were  especially  marked  as  passionate  and  Turanian 
orgiastic.     Excitement  was  wrought  up  to  frenzy  pjJ^'^^^J"* 
by  the  beating  of  drums,  the  clashing  of  cymbals,  °'^®** 
and  the  wildest  dances.    The  worshippers,  the  priests 
especially,   ran  howling,    cutting  themselves  with 
knives.     All  this  was  terribly  apt  to  end  in  un- 
bridled debauchery.     Such  was  the  worship  of  the 
Great  Mother  and  the  god  Sabazios.     VVlien  these 
rites,  along   with    the    closely    allied   worship   of 
Dionysus    (Bacchus),  had    been    introduced    into 
Rome  about   the    year   176  b.c,  the  Senate  was 
compelled  to  suppress  them  by  the  strong  arm  of 
law  as  being  utterly  intolerabla 


6.   HiTTiTE  System. 

Recently  most  important  discoveries  have 
been  made  regarding  the  Hittites — a  race,  or 
union  of  races,  that  rose  into  power  in  the  16th 
century  b.c,  and  for  centuries  contended  valiantly 
with  the  Egyptians  on  the  one  side  and  the 
Assyrians   on    the    other.      It  miarht    have   been  Hittite  fajih 

•^  "  not  purer 

hoped  that  their  faith  would  prove,  on  investiga-   ^^^^ 
tion,  to  be  of   a  higher  type   than   the  systems 


t3tf  Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism. 

which  have   already   passed  under  review.     It  is 
not  so,  however. 

"  The  religion  of  the  HilLites  seems  to  have  been  appropriated 
from  the  worst  features  of  Babylonian,  Phenician,  and,  latterly, 
Egyptian   idolatry."  ^ 

We  must  pause  m  this  sorrowful  review.  As 
a  well-informed  writer  puts  it, — 

The  "The  whole   philo80i)hy  of    the    religion  of  Asia   Minor   is 

philosophy  summed  up  in  three  words.     We  find  them  engraven  on  a  tomb 

reli^on  found   at  Kotiaion,   in  Phrygia  :    '  This  is  what  I  say  to  my 

of  Asia  friends  :  Give  yourselves  up  to  pleasure  and  enjoyment :  live.    For 

summed  up.  you  must  die.     Therefore  drink,  enjoy,  dance.'*  ' 


6.    Grecian   System. 

£teiie  tiiai        -^^^  ^^^  ^"^  P^^^  ^^  ^^  ^^®  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^  Hellas, 
^Khe^      and   to    a    people  with  whom  we    modems  have 
far  closer  intellectual  sympathy, — whose  thoughts, 
even  when  we   may  not   sjTnpathize  with    them, 
we    can    at    least   understand.      The   religion   of 


Greeks. 


The  Greece  must  have  been  in  a  lar^e  degree  derived 

religion  of  <-»  <_> 

derived  from  "^^^^"^  ^'SYV^  ^"^  ^^^^^  more,  the  East;  but  the 
tti^EasT*^  shaping  spirit  of  the  highly  endowed  Greeks  en- 
tirely changed  its  original  character.  It  made  the 
Character"''  deitios  thofoughly  human  —  gigantic  men  and 
QrSk  women.     They  had  human  passions,  virtues,  vices. 

They  ate  and  drank,  quarrelled  and  fought,  very 
much  as  the  lively  Greeks  were  accustomed  to  do 
among  themselves ;  and  these  divinities  were  some- 

'  So  Canon  Tristram. 
*  Berne  des  dewe  Mondes,  Oct.  1873,  p.  936. 


Cho^istianity  and  Ancient  Paganism.  37 

times  so  merry — at  a  friend's  expense,  it  might 
be — that  "  inextinguishable  laughter  "  shook  the 
skies.  Such,  at  least,  is  the  system  that  appears 
in   the  Homeric  poems.     How  far  it  may  have  The  system 

^  ">  ascribed  to 

been  the  production  of  one,  or  perhaps  two  minds,  i^JeliS 
we  cannot,  with  assurance,  say ;  the  Greek  writers  and^iieJori 
generally  ascribed  its  rise  to  the  joint  influence  of 
Homer  and  Hesiod ;  bat  one  would  think  it  could 
only  by  degrees  have  assumed  its  peculiar  type. 
The  great  popularity  of  Homer  imprinted  it  deeply 
on  the  mind  of  the  people.  Changes,  however, 
came  on;  foreign  rites  pressed  in.  Before  the 
Persian  war  a  great  alteration  was  visible  in  many 
respects.     The  earlier  Greeks  had  been  a  stirring.  The 

^  character 

joyous,   careless    race,    not    much   occupied   with  o^^J.^® 
religion ;  but  gradually  there  came  to  bo  magni-  ^^^^^^i*^- 
ficent  temples,  priests,  solemn  ceremonies,  mysteries,  jise  of 
Wild  orgiastic  religions  also  appeared,  or,  if  not  ®^-. 
new,  they  were  carried  to  much  greater  excess  than  religions. 
before, — the   worship  of  Dionysus  (Bacchus)  for 
example,  of  the  Thracian  goddess  Cotytto,  and  the 
Syrian  god  Adonis  (Tammuz,  as  in  Ezek.  viii.  14). 

In  the  theology  of  Homer,  as  a  careful  student  ^  ^1^^"^* 
of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  has  admitted,  "  elements  {Jeo^ogy 
of  a  profound  corruption  abound."     Later  systems  °'  °o™er. 
were  still  worse.     But  philosophy  arose.     Grave, 
thoughtful  men  were  shocked  at  the  popular  con- 
ceptions of  deity,  and  began   to  denounce  them. 
>  Mr.  aiadstone. 


38 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Faganisno. 


The  idea 
of  the 
divine 
purged  in 
the  hands 
of  the 
sacfts. 


The  de- 
basement 
of  the 
religion  of 
the  common 
people. 

Its  confce- 
quences. 


The 

retrospect 
profoundly 
priinful. 


In  the  hands  of  a  succession  of  sages  the  abstract 
idea  of  the  divine  was  more  and  more  purged  of 
base  alloy ;  but,  in  proportion  as  it  became  refined, 
the  notion  grew  dimmer  ;  until,  in  the  case  of 
Ajistotle,  deity  was  a  power,  or  a  principle,  rather 
than  a  person.  Even  Plato  never  inquired  about 
the  personality  of  God ;  he  seems  rather  to  think 
of  a  diffused  soul  of  the  world.  ^  But  philosophic 
speculation  was  not  for  the  common  people.  Their 
religion  became  lower  and  lower.  Offences  against 
God  and  human  nature  ere  long  flourished  in  rank 
luxuriance.  As  both  cause  and  effect  of  all  this, 
a  light  scoffing  infideKty  extended  among  all  the 
educated.  Then  patriotism  and  public  spirit  died. 
AH  that  was  magnanimous  in  Greek  character 
faded  away;  the  *' hungry  Greekling  "  (Grceculus 
esuriens)  was  ready  to  say,  or  do,  anything  for  a 
bit  of  bread.  Art  itself  became  debased.  Even 
the  population  began  to  die  out ;  in  various  places, 
in  order  to  prevent  fertile  regions  from  being 
changed  into  deserts,  Roman  colonists  were 
brought  in;  and  "shocldng  immorality  was  the 
cancer  that  ate  into  the  life  of  Greece."  '^ 

The  retrospect  we  have  been  engaged  in  is  pro- 
foundly painful.  "  Immortal  Greece — dear  land  of 
glorious  lays,'*  exclaims  Keble,  speaking  of  the 
classic  poetry  with  all  a  poet's  passion.  Yet  notwith- 
standing her  subtle  intellect,  and  vivid  imagination 

^  So  Zeller.  >  So  Thirlwall. 


Christianity  and  Anient  Faganiam.  39 


and  perfect    taste,   she  sank   into  an  abyss   thus  The  abyss 

of  shame 

fathomless   of  shame  and    ruin.      Why  ?     Even  an^  ruin- 
Byron  saw  the  reason : 

**  Enough,  no  foreign  foe  could  queU 
Thy  soul,   till  from  itself  it  fell. 
And  self-abasement  paved  the  way 
To  villain  bonds  and  despot  sway." 

It  is  through  the  beautiful  we  reach  the  good, 
said  Schiller.  Say  rather,  through  the  good  the 
beautiful.  At  all  events,  when  the  love  of  the 
good  has  passed  away,  the  perception  of  the 
beautiful  peiishos  soon  after.  This  is  one  of  the  "^^  lesson 
lessons  which  is  inscribed  on  the  history  of  Hellas,  ^^^y  °' 
as  if  "graven  with  an  iron  pen  and  lead,"  and 
80  inscribed  "in  the  rock  for  ever." 


7.   Roman  System. 
We   come  now  to  Rome.      The  Romans  were  The 

...  character 

originally    in    many    things    different    from    the  ^^^^ 
Greeks.   Less  speculative  ;  more  practical ;  simpler, 
truer,   graver ;   more   law-abiding ;    with  a  better 
family  life;    and  possessed  of  a  deeper  religious 
instinct.     The    early    religion  of  Rome  had  con-  The 

•^  *-'  resemblance 

siderable    resemblance    to    that    of   Greece,    both  ^V^^^  ^"'}^ 

'  religion  oi 

having  sprung  out  of  one  Aryan  faith ;  but,  for  SaT'o/" 
some   time,    the   two   systems   tended  to  diverge,     ^""^^ 
each  being  influenced  by  its  own  environment.     It 
is  interesting  to  note  that  the  Roman  religion  had 


40  Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism. 

Points  of       special   points   of    correspondence    with    the    old 

correspon- 

dence  with     Persian,  as  unfolded  in  the  Zend-avesta.^     Much 

the  old  ' 

Persian,  moro  importance  was  attached  to  rites  than 
to  beliefs  or  emotions — the  worship  tending  to  a 
punctilious  extemalism ;  prayer  became  a  kind  of 
magical  formula ;  much  stress  was  laid  on  cere- 
monial purity ;  the  mythology  was  meagre.  A 
new  departure  took  place  towards  the  end  of  the 
regal  period.  Images  were  now  introduced ;  and 
temples,  increasing  in  splendour,  began  to  appear. 

iS^rnes^**"  The  religion  became  more  and  more  political,  and 

LliTmore  was  rcgulatcd  by  the  State.  But  cold  formalism 
could  not  satisfy  the  popular  mind  and  heart. 

Greek  and         First,  Grock  and  then  Asiatic  gods  and  goddesses 

Asiatic  gods  '  o  o 

press  in,       pressod  iu.     Infidelity  succeeded,  at  least  among 

the  higher  classes.     The  poet  Ennius,  a  Calabrian 

Greek,  was  among  the  first  to  propagate  it.    During 

the  two  centuries  that  preceded  the  birth  of  Christ, 

The  spread    unbelief  Spread  like  a  pestilence,  and  immorality 

^^     ^^    kept  pace  with  it.     Each  was  both  cause  and  effect 

anmoiahty.  ^     -t 

of  the  other.  In  vain  did  the  elder  Cato  strive  to 
keep  out  the  infection ;  in  vain  did  he  inveigh 
against  the  Greeks  as  the  "  parents  of  every  vice;" 
corruption  rushed  on,  as  Augustine  says,  "  like  a 
headlong  torrent."  Family  life  greatly  changed  ; 
divorce  became  fashionable  ;  and  women — in  many 
cases,  women  of  the  highest  rank — became  shame- 

^  So  the  Zend  and  Latin  languages  have  epecial  points  iu 
common. 


Chriaticmity  and  Ancient  Paganism,  41 

less  in  their  degradation.  Even  noted  historical 
personages,  with  whose  names  we  do  not  readily 
associate  the  idea  of  vice,  were  men  of  abandoned 
life.     Thus  Dr.  Arnold  speaks  with  severe  repro-  ^r-  ^Arnold 

^  ^  on  Juhua 

bation  of  "  the  utter  moral  degradation  "  of  Julius  ^®'*'^^- 
GaBsar.     A  deep  darkness,   almost  amounting  to 
despair,  seemed  settling  down   on  the  minds   of 
men.     Suicide  prevailed,  in  consequence,  to  an  un- 
paralleled extent. 

But  the  nemesis  of  infidelity  is  superstition.    The  ^he 

•'  ^  tiemeats  of 

old  Italic  religion  had  been  comparatively  pure.  ^"^<^«"*y 
Thus  in  the  very  name  of  the  chief  god,  Jupiter 
Optimus  MaximuSf  we  find  the  ideas  of  supreme 
goodness  and  supreme  power.^     But   when  these 
had  perished,  something  was  felt  to  be  needful  in 
their  place;    and*   dark,   gloomy   faiths — hideous  The 
brutal   mysteries — ^from   Egypt,  Asia  Minor,  and  superstition 
Babylon — flowed  in  to  fill  the  intolerable  void.     In 
Greece  itself,  as  religion  declmed,  magic  and  sor- 
cery, its  miserable  substitutes,  had  greatly  flourished. 
So  in  Rome.     Conjurors,  soothsayers,   astrologers, 
and  fortune-tellers  filled  every  street,  and  insinuated 
themselves    into    every    household.      "  Professed  ^^""^ 
atheists  trembled  in  secret  at  the  mysterious  power  **^*'^^*^ 
of  magical    incantations ; "     many    invoked    the 
shades  of  the  dead,  or  strove  to  penetrate  into  the 

'  So  Cicero :  Te,  Capitoliue,  quern  propter  beneficia  popi^lufl 
Romanus  optimum,  propter  vim  maximum,  nominavit. — Pro 
domo  $ua,  e,  57. 


42 


Clii'xstianity  and  Ancient  FayauisTn 


Matthew 
Arnold's 
sketch  of 
the  mental 
condition  of 
the  higher 
clasfies  in 
Home. 


secrets  of  futurity  by  examining  the  entrails  of  a 
murdered  child.^ 

Mr.  Matthew  Arnold,  with  a  few  strokes,  has 
given  us  a  vivid  sketch  of  the  mental  condition  of 
the  higher  classes  in  Rome : 

On  that  hard  Pagan  world  disgust  And  secret  loathing  fell, 

And  weariness  and  sated  lust  Made  human  life  a  hell. 

In  bis  cool  hall,  with  haggard  eyes,  The  noble  Roman  lay,  — 

He  drove  abroad  in  furious  guise  Along  the  Appian  Way  ; 

He  made  a  feast,  drank  fierce  and  fast,  And  crowned  hia  hair 

with  flowers — 
No  easier  and  no  quicker  passed  The  impracticable  hours. 

M.  Renan's  testimony  is  the  same.  He  states 
that,  under  the  empire,  Rome  became  a  very  hell 
{un  vrai  enfer). 


Renan'8 
testimony. 


Greek  and 
Roman 

philosophy. 


Stoidsm. 


The 

conception 
of  man  as 
man  not 
foreign  to 
it. 


It  may,  perhaps,  be  thought  that  in  the  preceding 
estimate  we  have  overlooked  the  value  of  Greek 
and  Roman  philosophy.  On  that  head,  then,  we 
still  add  a  few  words. 

Morally,  the  best  philosophical  system  was 
Stoicism.  We  have  spoken  above  of  the  value  of 
this  philosophy  in  the  development  of  jurisprudence. 
The  later  Stoicism  certainly  enunciated  various  im- 
portant principles  in  ethics.  Thus  the  cosmopolitan 
idea — the  conception  of  man  as  man — was  not 
foreign  to  it.  It  admitted  that  slaves  were  not 
mere  things,  but  possessed  of  rights.  Stoicism  did 
not  readily  lose  itself  in  speculation ;  it  clung 
firmly  to  the  idea  of  duty,  and  was  intensely  prao- 
'  Merivale's  History  of  Rome,  voL  n.  p.  514. 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism.  43 

tical.     Seneca  expresses  sentiments  which  have  so  The 

..  ,  1111  Christian 

much  of  a  Christian  nnsr  that  many  have  held  that  "^g  of 

*-'  *^  Seneca's 

he  must  have  derived  them  from  intercourse  with  sentiments. 
St.  Paul ;  though  that  is  scarcely  probable. 

We  must  cherish  for  such  men  as  Epictetus  and  Epictetua 

^  and  Marcus 

Marcus  Aurelius  that  kind  of  wondering  regard  -^-ureiius. 
with  which  we  think  of  Buddha.    Seneca,  however, 
was  a  mere  rhetorician ;  his  fine  periods  were  flatly 
contradicted  by  his  life. 

But  Stoicism  cherished  an  immeasurable  pride ;  TJ^f.  ppde 

^  '    of  Stoicism. 

and  it  wrapped  itself  in  an  icy,  self- worshipping 
selfishness.  Its  theology  was  pantheistic,^  really, 
if  not  confessedly.  It  held  that  all  things  were 
ruled  by  the  iron  necessity  of  fate.  On  the  whole, 
the  most  favourable  estimate  that  can  possibly  be 
formed  of  this  haughty  philosophy  is  that  of  Reuss  : 

"  The  fine  ideas  of  Roman  Stoicism  were  buds  which  only  the    Reusa's 
sun  of  the  Gospel  could  develop  into  beauty  and  perfectiim  ;    |^timate  of 
but  which,  if  left  alone,  would  never  have  produced  rich  fruits." 


We  have  thus  failed  to  trace  in  the  groat  Pagan 
systems  of  antiquity  any  grand  conceptions  which 
Christianity  did  or  could  incorporate  with  itself. 
At  the  same  time,  there  were  in  most,   or  all,  of  sciour^" 
them  what  have  been   called   "  unconscious  pro-  of  better 

'■  things  in 

phecies"^  of  better  things.     Prophecies,  or  even  I'aganism. 
anticipations,  in  any  strict  sense  of  the  word,  these 
assuredly  were  not ;   but  they  were  questionings, 

^  So  Zeller.  *  By  Arohlnshop  Trench  especially. 


u 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism. 


A  consciouB 
emptiness 
of  the 
heart 


The 

coining  of 
Christ. 


The  age — 
.  .ong  pre- 
paration 
for  it. 


Com- 
mingling 
of  creeds 
consequent 
on  the 
conquests 
of  Alex- 
ander and 
extension 
of  Roman 
dominion. 


yearnings,  aspirations — a  feeling  that  the  heart  was 
empty,  and  the  desire,  sometimes  the  hope,  that  it 
might  yet  he  filled.  And  HE  who  sees  the  end 
from  the  beginning,  was  all  the  while  preparing  to 
answer  those  questions,  satisfy  those  cravings,  and 
fulfil,  yea  exceed,  the  highest  anticipations  ever 
formed  by 

The  prophetic  soul 
Of  the  wide  world,  dreaming  on  things  to  come. 

Christ  came,  says  St.  Paul,  "  in  the  fulness  of  the 
time."  For  His  coming,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  a 
manifold  preparation  had  been  made,  extending 
throughout  the  ages.  With  a  view  to  this  grand 
consummation,  the  kingdoms  of  the  world  had  risen 
and  fallen.  All  things  had  been  "shaken,"^  in 
order  that  the  false  and  the  fleeting  might  be 
shaken  off,  and  that  the  true  and  the  eternal  might 
have  room  to  grow  and  unfold  their  holy  beauty. 

It  was  indeed  "  the  fulness  of  the  time,"  in  the 
largest  sense  of  these  significant  words ;  but  we 
must  here  limit  our  view  to  religion,  and  one 
aspect  of  the  "fulness." 

We  have  seen  the  deplorable  condition  into 
which  each  of  the  great  religions  of  Paganism  had 
fallen.  The  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
and  the  extension  of  Roman  dominion,  had  led 
largely  to  a  commingling  of  creeds.  Traces  of 
Oriental  systems  could  be  found  even  in  Britain. 

*  Haggai  ii  6,  7. 


ChristiavAty  and  Ancient  Pagantmi.  45 

But  the   union   of   eastern   and  western  thought  no  happy 

results 

had  produced  no  happy  results.     Eg^-pt,  Babylon,  f^rom^the 

Assyiia,  Phenicia,  Lydia,  Phrygia,  Greece,  Rome  ^dVe,tern 

— these  and  other  nations  had  toiled,  as  we  may  ^^°^^^^- 
express  it,  to  scale  the  heavens   and   there  find 
God ;  but  every  attempt  had  ended  in  vanity  and 
vexation  of  spirit.     We  can  hardly  feel  surprise 

that  the  difficulty  of   ascertaining  truth  and  the  J^^uity  of 

endless   conflict  of  opinion  led  many  thoughtful  ?ruth'S'°^ 

men  to  discard  the  consideration  of  religion  alto-  SSd 

the  con- 

gether.     Why  should  they  pursue  a  shadow  that  sideration 
ever  eluded  their  grasp  ?     What  Justin   Martyr 
says  of  the  philosophers  of  his   time — the  com- 
mencement of  the  second  century — applies  with 
equal  force  to  the  century  preceding : 


Justin 

"  Moat  of  the  philosophers  never  consider  the  question  whether    o^*^"* 

there  be  one  God  or  many  ;  whether  there  be  a  Divine  Pro-    philosophers 
. ,  .  „  ,  of  his  tune. 

videnoe  or  not 

Thus,  growing  scepticism  among  the  educated,  and 
grosser  and  grosser  superstition  among  the  conunon 
people,  were  the  melancholy  characteristics  of  the 
age  which  ushered  in  the  Christian  era. 

But  God  had  not  forsaken  the  world.  He  had,  JJ'ff^i^akeB 
as  St.  Paul  expresses  it,  "  suffered  all  nations  to  ^  ^  * 
walk  in  their  own  ways,"  ^  though,  at  the  same 
time,  He  had  "  never  left  Himself  without  witness.'/ 
The  history  of  the  race  bears,  in  several  respects,  a 
resemblance  to  that  of  an  individual.  Man  is  very 
A  Acta  xiT.  1& 


46 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism. 


proud ;  he  will  not  seek  the  help  of  God  until  he 

feels  himself  helpless.     To   the   question  of  the 

patriarch,    "  Canst  thou    by   searching    find    out 

The  failures  Qod  ?,"  he  would  boldlv  have  answered,  Yes,  until 

in  the  ^  "^  '  ' 

finHu****     ^^  ^^^   repeatedly  failed   in  the  proud   attempt. 
God.  More  than  three  thousand  years  had  passed  since, 


The  need  of  great    Droblem  ; 

a  divine 
revelation 
demonstra- 
ted. 


The 

advent 
of  the  Light 
of  the 
world. 


in  Chaldea  and  Egypt,  he  had  first  essayed  the 
and  the  demonstration  of  the 
necessity  of  a  divine  revelation  had  been  over- 
whelmingly ample.  At  least  some  of  the  higher 
minds  had  seen  it ;  and  Plato  sighed  for  a  (heios 
logos.  Or,  if  man  did  not  fully  see  it,  yet  the 
yearning  heart  of  heaven  could  wait  no  longer. 
And,  therefore,  as  the  apostle  plainly  puts  it, 

**  After  that,  in  the  wisdom  of  God,  the  world  by  wisdom  knew 
not  God,  it  pleased  God  by  the  foolishness  [i.e.,  what  man  called 
foolishness]  of  the  preaching  to  save  them  that  believe."* 

In  the  moral  world,  as  in  the  physical,  the 
dawn  precedes  the  sunrise.  The  Sun  of  Right- 
eousness came  not  unheralded.  The  first  streaks 
of  day  had  appeai'cd  long  ago,  and  the  reddening 
of  the  eastern  sky  announced  the  speedy  advent 
of  the  "  Light  of  the  world." 

*  Archdeacon  Farrar  has  repeatedly  used  the  phrase.,  —  "ethnic 
inspiration."  We  think  the  expression  unhappy,  and  fear  it 
will  be  misunderstood  and  misapplied.  But  the  Archdeacon 
has  lately  said  that  Heathenism  was  '*  a  vast  failure,"  and  "  the 
light  of  any  other  religion  compared  with  that  of  Christianity, 
but  as  ft  bUu*  to  the  lun," 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism,  47 


8.   The  Faith  of  Israel. 

For  two  thousand  years,  and  possibly  more, 
one  race  had  stood  apart  from  all  others,  "  dwell- 
ing alone,  and  not  reckoned  among  the  nations." 
It  is  in  the  dirlne  training  of   this  people — and  The  true 

'-  ^       ^  evolution 

not  where  many  vainly  seek  it — that  we  are  to  Jj  E^^fo^nd 
look  for  the  true   evolution,  or  development,  of  IrafiTng  of 

•I  •    •  Israel. 

religion. 

There  are  men  who  question  the  accuracy  of  our 
conceptions    regarding   Abraham.      But  even  the  Moses  ^- 
destructive  criticism,  in  the  last  resort,  postulates  J^bmhin. 
an  Abraham,  or    some  equivalent  starting-point ; 
otherwise,   Moses   bec6mes    an    inexplicable   phe- 
nomenon.    The  grandeur  of  the  position  occupied  The 

^     "  ^  ^  ^  grandeur  of 

by  the  latter  is,  of  course,  undeniable.     Kuenen  ^^^^^'^ 
has  said: 

*  *  Even  from  the  time  of  Mows,  Yahveh  (Jehovah)  comes  forward    Kuenen  on 

with  moral   commandments.      This   is   the  starting  point  of    ^^®  °p™-  ^ 
T        „       .  ,        ,.   .  ,       ,  ,  ,    ,  ,  inandinenta. 

Israel  a  ncn  religious  development ;  the  germ  of  those  glorious 

truths  which  were  to  ripen  in  the  course  of  centuries." 

It  is  not  too  great  a  stress  which  is  thus  laid  on 
the  ethical  character  of  the  Mosaic  faith.  The 
Ten  Commandment-8  arose  in  serene  imperishable 
majesty  at  least  fifteen  centuries  before  Christ.  ^^  t^*  '^ 

*"        •'  the  history 

There  is  no  parallel  fact  in  the  history  of  Pagan  ^^^'^ 

systemi.     "Be  ye  holy,  for  I  am  holy"  was  i\ie  frilseS 

sublime  oracle  of  Israel's  God,  and  of  Israel's  God  ^Isid^S. 
alone. 


48 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism, 


Yahveh 
not  a  mere 
tribal  God. 


Recognized 
as  a  power 
above  all 
powers, 
pure  yet 
com- 
passionate. 


His  people 
freed  from 
superstitious 
terrors  by 
His  power 
and 
presence. 


Many  critics    assert  that  Yahveh  was  at  first 
newed  as  only  a  tribal  god,  who  protected  Israel, 
while  rival  deities  protected  other  nations.     That 
belief  is  based  on  the  pure  assumption  that  the 
history  of  Abraham,  as  given  in  Genesis,  is   of 
comparatively  late  origin ;  for  the  Lord  is  there 
spoken  of  as  "  Almighty,"  as  "  Judge  of  all  the 
earth,"    and    so   on.      But   waiving    the   case   of 
Abraham,  and  supposing  we  could  admit  that  the 
people  in  Egypt,  enslaved  and  in  every  way  de- 
moralized,  rose  no   higher  than    to   conceive   of 
Yahveh   as   only  their  god ;    yet  He  was,  at  all 
events,  recognized  as  a  power  above  all  powers — 
a  personality — a    Creator — ruling    nature,   never 
identified   with    it — awfully    pure,   yet    infinitely 
compassionate  —  forgiving     iniquity,    and    trans- 
gression, and  sin,  yet  punishing  the  impenitently 
wicked — a  Being  that  abhorred  all  the  cruel  and 
abominable  rites  in  which  the  Pagan  gods  were 
believed  to   delight — whose   power  and  presence 
freed  His  people  from  all  the  superstitious  terrors 
and  the  miserable  magic  which  formed  so  large  a 
part  of  the  worship  of  surrounding  nations.     Even 
if  the  so-called  higher  criticism  could  prove  that 
some   of  the   conceptions   now   referred  to   were 
possibly   inserted   in   the  Pentateuch   at   a   com- 
paratively recent  date,  yet  no  one  can  deny  that, 
at  all  events,  by  the  eighth  century  before  Christ, 
there  are  declarations  regarding  Jehovah  and  His 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism.  49 


p  in 
'hth 


worship  wluch,  in  truth  and  sublimity,  have  never  subume 

*  declariition 

Since  been  surpassed.     Take  that  passage,  tor  ex-  5"^n^^*jm^g 
ample,  in  the  prophet  Micah  which  has  extorted  ^IJ^^^ 
the  admiration  of  Professor  Huxley :  Sntu?y 

before 
"  Wherewith  shall  I  come  before  the  Lord,  and  bow  myself  before  Christ. 
the  high  God  ?  Shall  I  come  with  burnt  ofiferings,  with  calvea 
of  a  year  old  ?  Will  the  Lord  be  pleased  with  thousands  of 
rams,  or  with  ten  thousands  of  rivers  of  oil  ?  Shall  I  give  my 
first-born  for  my  transgression,  the  fruit  of  my  body  for  the 
sin  of  my  soul  ?  He  hath  showed  thee,  0  man,  what  is  good  j 
and  what  doth  the  Lord  require  of  thee,  but  to  do  justly,  and 
to  love  mercy,  and  to  walk  humbly  with  thy  Gkxi  ? " 

Not  less  remarkable  than  these  lofty  utterances  His  t^^tred 

•'  of  evil  in 

is  the  declaration  that  Jehovah  hated  evil  in  His  J^p°^° 
own  people  even  more    than    in    less    favoured 
nations : 

"Tou  only  have  I  known  of  all  the  families  of  the  earth; 
therefore  will  I  punish  you  for  your  iniquities." 

The  gods  of  the  nations  were  thorough  partizans; 
they  sided  with  their  worshippers  through  right  and 
wrong.  Jehovah  loved  His  people  much,  but  right-  ^K'^T| 
eousness  still  more.  Admirable  is  the  passionate  "^• 
denunciation  of  the  hypocrisy  which  would  divorce 
two  things  that  ought  ever  to  be  linked  in  indis- 
soluble wedlock — religion  and  morality  : 

"  Shall  I  count  them  pure  with  the  wicked  balances  and  the  bag 
of  deceitful  weights,  and  the  scant  measure  that  is  abominable  ? " 

The  vehemence  and  measureless  scorn  with  which   Denunaa- 

tdon  of 

polytheism   and  idolatry  are   denounced  are  also  poijtheism 
most  striking.     In  all  other  nations   the  deities  '**'''*'^- 


50  Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism, 

multiplied  ;  and  image- worship  rooted  itself  more 
and  more  deeply  as  time  went  on. 
The  hope-         "W"e  must  pauso  in  our  enumeration  of  the  cha- 

fulness  of 

^^^^^  racteristics  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  Yet  one 
other  must  still  be  noted — their  hopefulness. 
When  the  great  monarchies  which  walled  Israel 
in — especially  Egypt  and  Assyria—- were  trampling 
down  the  liberties  of  nations  and  spreading  around 
them  their  abominable  idolatries,  and  when,  to  all 
appearance,  the  cause  both  of  God  and  of  man  was 

rhe  Hebrew  lost,  the  uoblo  seors  of  Israel  never  despaired,  never 

seers  never  ^ 

fnTe^'gard^     ouco  despoudod,  iu  regard  to  the  future  of  Israel 

fStire  of       or   of  the   world.     AU  things  they  knew  were  in 

th^worid.      the  hands  of  One   who   was  Almighty,  AU-wise, 

and  All-gracious.     "  Be  still,  and  know  that  I  am 

God,"  that  is,  be  calmly  confident,  and  trust  in 

Me:   such   was  the  command.      One  unchanging 

purpose — a  purpose  of  mercy — ran  throughout  the 

ages.     Let  them  in  patience  possess  their  souls: 

for  in  "  the  day  of  the  Lord"— "the  latter  day" 

— every  crooked  thing  was  to  be  made  straight; 

the  Lord  alone  should  be  exalted ;  all  iniquity  was 

to  stop  her  mouth ;  the  meek  should  inherit  the 

earth,  and  delight  themselves  in  the  abundance  of 

rhe  no         peace.     More  and  more  the  hopes  of  the  nation 

nition  made  wcro  made  to  centre  on  an  individual—"  the  Coming 

One  "— "  the  Messiah  " — "  the  Prince  of  peace  ;  " 

and  in  Him  aU  the  families  of  the  earth  were  to 

he  blessed;  He  would  be  a  light  to  lighten  the 


to  centre 
in  an  in- 
dividual. 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism.  61 

Gentiles,   as  well  as  the  glory  of  the  people  of 
Israel. 

And  while  prophet  after  prophet  was  raised  up, 
all  moved  hy  one  Spirit,  but  each  unfolding  the 
message  of  instruction,  admonition,  or  encourage- 
ment, or  applying  it  to  the  special  circumstances 
of  his  time, — and  while  the  whole  ceremonial  wor-  Th* 

p  providential 

ship  was  one  vast  prophecy  of  good  thmgs  to  come,  training  of 
and  recognised  by  thoughtful  men  as  such  ^ — the  f^ciiJL 
providence  of  God  was  marvellously  training  the 
nation  for  its  lofty  function.    Events  that  appeared 
simply  evil  were  overruled  to  work  out  good.     The 
captivity  in  Egypt — the  sojourn  in  the  wilderness 
— the  division  of  the  nation  into  two  halves — the  The 
captivity  in  Babylon — the  persecutions  under  Syrian  events 
kings — and  the  conquest  of  Judaea  by  the  Romans  Jjg^^^o*!^ 
— it  is  not  difficult  to  see  how  each  of  these  events  ^l^t^!^ 
was  fitted  to  raise  the  mind  of  the  people  to  truer  ceptioM^of 
conceptions  of  God,  and  teach  them  deeper  lessons 
of  righteousness,  of  sin,  and  of  salvation. 

Meanwhile,  the  wide  diffusion  of  the  Greek  Ian-  The 

'  diffusion  of 

guage,  the  translation  into  it  of  the  Old  Testament,  JangS^faa 
and  the  contact  of  Greek  and  Jewish  thought—  pTep'Sation. 
especially  in  such  centres  as   Alexandria — were 
very  important  preparations  for  the  proclamation 
and  reception  of  the  Gospel  over  the  civilized 
world. 

^  See  Kurtz  on  the  Bacrifidal  worship  of  the  Old  TestaiiMot 
for  proof  ol  thub 


52 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism, 


Virgfl'8 
expectation. 


Augiistine. 


8i  John. 


The 

teaching 
of  Christ. 


IIL 

Thus,  then,  at  the  pre- appointed  time— in  "the 
fulness  of  the  time  " — dawned  "  the  Light  of  Life  " 
on  men.  And  now — as  Virgil  sang,  in  expectation 
of  some  glorious  change  that  was  hastening  on — 

**  Magnus  ab  integro  8a)clorum  Dascitur  ordo  ;  "  ^ 

or  in  the  words  of  Augustine  : 

**  Christ  appeared  to  the  men  of  a  worn-out  dying  world,  that 
when  every  thing  around  was  sinking  into  decay,  they  might, 
through  Him,  receive  a  new  and  youthful  life  ;" 

or  in  the  far  sublimer  language  of  St.  John : 

**  The  WokI  was  made  flesh,  and  dwelt  among  us ;  and  we 
beheld  His  glory — the  glory  as  of  the  only  begotten  of  the 
Father ;  full  of  grace  and  truth  :  and  as  many  as  received  Him, 
to  them  gave  He  power  to  become  the  children  of  God." 

He  taught.  He  taught  those  truths  to  which — 
though  often  feebly  and  fitfully — the  human  reason 
and  conscience  have  borne  witness  throughout  the 
ages.  He  gave  the  metal  without  alloy :  His 
words  were  pure,  as  "  silver  purified  seven  times." 
Then,  the  majestic  verities  enunciated  by  the 
prophets  of  Israel  He  explained,  applied,  and  also 
developed  and  enlarged.  He  taught  by  words ; 
He  taught  by  deeds.  His  entire  life  was  one  con- 
tinuous revelation  of  God  and  truth. 

He  wrought 
With  human  hands  the  creed  of  creecU, — 
In  loveliness  of  perfect  deeds 
More  strong  than  all  poetic  thought. 


*  Now  oommenceth  anew  the  mighty  roll  of  the  agea. 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism.  6^ 

He  died.     The  good  Shepherd  gave  His  life  for 
the  sheep.      That  death,   that   Cross,   that    love  The  death 

.  .    .  .-  .  of  Christ 

victorious  over  agony,  is  the  divmest  manifestation 
of  the  Divinity.  It  is  the  full  expression  of  the 
mind  and  heart  of  God  ;  so  that,  when  once  it  has 
taken  place,  HE  who  longs  adequately  to  reveal 
Himself  to  His  creatures,  and  whom  to  know  is 
life  eternal,  can  enter  into  ineffable  repose  and  say, 
"It  is  enough:  My  creatures  can  know  Me  now." 

And  Christ  rose  again — rose  to  the  immediate  The 
presence  of  God.     There  He  is  exalted  a  Prince  oraIriSt°° 
and  a  Saviour,  "  to  give  repentance  and  forgiveness 
of  sins  to  Israel,"  and  to  all. 

Such  very  briefly  were  the  truths  which   His  The 

T      •    1  1     1  i  1    •       i        11  •  commission 

disciples  were  commanded  to  proclaim  to  all  nations,  of  nie 

*^        ^  ^  ^     ^  ^  disciples 

"  beginning  at  Jerusalem."  But  it  is  one  thing  to 
know  the  truth,  and  another  thing  to  obey  it.  We 
are  all  familiar  with  the  sorrowful  confession  of 
the  poet  Ovid: 

Video  meliora  proboque, 
Detcriora  BequorJ 

Moral  truths  were  not  unfrequently  inculcated  by  5^(,„,ty  ^f 
heathen  sages.     But  these  sages  felt  and  deplored  *^®  ^'^^^^ 
the  exceeding  difficulty  of  inducing  others  to  follow 
their  precepts.     They  regarded  the  mass  of  men  as  Their  view 
hopelessly  sunk  in  ignorance  and  vice,  and  only  a  "^'"'*1 ."' 
small  number  as  so  happily  constituted  that  they 
would  ever  seek  to  rise  to  the  serene  heights  of 

*  I  see  the  right,  and  T  approve  it  too. 
Condemn  the  wrong,  and  yet  the  wrong  pursue. 


64 


Chmdianity  and  Ancient  Paganism. 


The  effect 
of  the  pro- 
clamation 
of  the 
Gk>8pel. 


A  stupend- 
ous and 
unparalleled 
spiritual 
revolution. 


The  dis- 
appearance 
of  the 
forms  of 
Pagan 
faith. 


The  gods 
of  Egypt 


wisdom  and  virtue.  But  lo  !  a  marvel.  For  whcD 
once  the  silver  trump  of  the  "glad  tidings*' 
sounded  abroad,  the  lowest  depths  of  society  were 
stirred ;  and  the  grandest  conceptions  which  the 
human  mind  can  form  regarding  God,  and  the 
soul,  and  holiness,  and  sin,  and  reconciliation,  and 
love,  and  heaven,  and  heU,  now  filled  the  minds, 
and  moved  the  hearts,  and  shaped  the  lives  of  mul- 
titudes, who,  until  now,  had  been  dead  to  every- 
thing but  grovelling  ideas  and  debasing  lusts.  A  stu- 
pendous spiritual  revolution;  in  suddenness  and  com- 
pleteness whoUy  without  a  parallel.  An  entire  trans- 
formation in  the  individual  believer,  and  through 
individuals  a  gradual  transformation  of  society.^ 

It  was  a  conflict  of  centuries  before  the  great 
systems  which  we  have  been  considering  gave 
way  before  the  victorious  march  of  Christianity. 
But  successively  and  completely  all  of  them  did 
give  way.  All  those  vast  forms  of  Pagan  faith 
have  melted  away  like  snow  in  the  sunbeam.  Or 
rather  say,  the  great  thirst  which  the  Gentile 
nations  sought  to  quench  by  diinking  of  muddy 
and  polluted  streams,  could  now  be  slaked  at  the 
river,  "clear  as  crystal,  proceeding  out  of  the 
throne  of  God  and  the  Lamb." 

The  brutish  gods  of  Egypt  have  perished.  We 
have  visited  the  Serapeum — that  vast  subterranean 

*  Nos  ergo  ioli  innoceiUeSy  We  alone  are  innocent, — was 
Teitullian's  bold,  but  unanswered,  challenge. — ApU.  45 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism.  55 

receptacle  of  dead  gods — and  found  it  filled  with 
immense  granite  sarcophagi,  each  containing  the 
embalmed  form  of  an  ox-god,  Apis.^  Was  the 
resurrection  expected  ?  No  resurrection  for  them  ^o 
is  possible.  Baal  no  longer  exalts  himself  as  the  Jorlh^n. 
rival  of  Jehovah.  Chemosh,  "  the  abomination  of 
the  Moabites,"  and  bloody  Moloch,  are  alike  for- 
gotten. In  Babylon,  Bel  has  "  bowed  down  **  and 
Nebo  has  **  stooped,"  never  to  rise  again ;  and 
Dagon  of  the  Philistines  has  fallen  once  more, — 
and  now  not  even  the  stump  of  him  is  left. 

Even  so  have  passed  away  the  deities  of  Greece  ije  deities 

,  o'  Greece. 

and  Rome.  The  Parthenon  still  crowns  the  Acro- 
polis of  Athens ;  but  Pallas  Athene,  the  guardian 
goddess,  has  fled ;  her  very  name  is  scarcely  re- 
membered there.  On  snowy  Olympus  "black- 
clouding  Zeus "  no  longer  holds  his  throne ;  and 
the  god  of  the  silver  bow,  Phoebus  Apollo,  is  dis- 
carded alike  at  Delos  and  at  Delphi.  A  Christian 
church  stands  en  the  spot  where  once  arose  the 
majestic  temple  of  Jupiter,  the  guardian  of  the 
Capitol.     Meantime  the  Roman  empire  has  been  The  break 

.         .  ...  up  of  the 

broken  in  pieces ;  but  the  religion  of  Christ,  sur-  Roman 
viving  that  convulsion,  has  converted  and  tamed 
the  wild  barbarians  who  overwhelmed  the  ancient 
world,  and  has  given  birth  to  a  form  of  civilization  what  the 

•11  •  p      ^  •   t  •  111*11     ^^ifion  of 

With  the  contmuance  of  which  are  inseparably  linked  chnat  haa 
the  dearest  hopes  of  humanity. 

^  There  seem  to  be  sixty-four  of  these  saroophag' 


56 


Ghristianity  and  Ancient  Paganism, 


The  secret 
of  this 
power. 


The  onmi- 

potence  of 
Christ. 


rhe  truth 
taught  by 
Christ 
viewed  by 
Ilim  as 
•alt 


And  whence  this  unexampled  power  P  That 
problem  exercises  and  perplexes  the  minds  of  many 
at;  this  day.  It  was  the  fuller,  deeper  truth  He 
taught,  say  some.  It  was  His  character — match- 
less in  purity  and  love,  say  others.  Yes  ;  but  there 
was  more,  much  more  ;  and  we  have  no  reason  to 
believe,  if  as  Mr.  Matthew  Arnold  says,  the  Syrian 
stars  look  down  upon  a  grave  from  which  He  nevci- 
rose,  that  Christianity  could  have  long  survived  His 
crucifixion.^  Not  the  so-called  omnipotence  of 
truth,  but  the  omnipotence  of  Him  who  is  the 
Truth,  has  won  the  victory.     As  said  the  Apostle  : 

* '  Being  by  the  right  hand  of  God  exalted,  and  having  received 
of  the  Father  the  promise  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  HE  hath  shed  forth 
this  which  ye  now  hear  and  see." 

Christ  Himself  spoke  of  the  truth  He  taught  as 
at  once  light  and  salt.  Yiew  it  for  a  moment 
under  the  latter  aspect     Mere  worldly  gifts  and 


^  It  would  be  easy  to  adduce  from  many  writers  far  removed 
from  orthodox  Christianity,  strong  language  regarding  the  un- 
equalled elevation  and  purity  of  Christ's  character.  Our  limits 
restrict  us  t:;  jne  or  two  quotations.  Spiuoza  says  :  "  The  eternal 
wisdom  has  manifested  itself  in  all  things,  but  chiefly  in  the 
human  mind,  and  most  of  all  in  Jesus  Christ."  (^Eterna 
^pientia  sese  in  omnibus  rebus,  maxim6  in  humana  meiite, 
omnium  maxim6  in  Christo  Jesu  manifestavit.  Epist.  xxi.) 
Goethe  said,  *'  I  bow  before  Jesus  Christ  as  a  revelation  of 
supreme  morality."  Still  stronger  is  the  testimony  of  John 
Stuart  Mill.  Mr.  John  Morley  indeed  finds  fault  with  Mr.  Mill 
for  his  admiration,  and  uses  depreciatory  language,  but  without 
any  attempt  to  support  the  charges  made.  Is  this  consistent 
with   Mr.  Morley's    ideas    of  delicacy    and  justice  ? 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism.  57 

graces  tend  lamentably  to  become  corrupt,  and  to 
nerish  in  tbeir  corruption.    Without  religion,  with-  The 
out  the  religion  of  Christ,  the  human  race  could  of  chnsi 

*-'  ^         ^  ^       essential 

never  raise,  and  never  maintain,  the  noble  fabric  ^g^^tio^  ^^ 

of  a  true  manhood  and  an  enduring  civilization.  JJj^J^^™*" 

Certainly  there  was  much  in  the  culture  of  ancient 

Greece  that  was  intellectual  and  refined ;  much 

that  was  stately  and  seemed  strong  in   that  of 

ancient  Rome ;  but  the  preserving  element,  the 

salt,  was  wanting ;  and  either  form  of  civilization 

ere  long  became  morally  corrupt,  and  sank  in  ruins. 

But  now — ^whatever  elements  of  truth  or  beauty —  Christianity 

accepts  and 

whatever  pure  forms  of  life  appear  in  any  land  ^^f^^^nt, 
or  age,    Christianity   despises  them  not,  nay,  she  ^d^uty. 
thankfully  accepts  them.    She  blends  them  with  her 
own  diviner  life,  so  warding  off  corruption,  and 
rendering  these  otherwise  perishable  treasures,  **  an 
everlasting  possession."    Forms  of  social  life  which 
ancient  sages  sometimes  dreamt  of,  but  despaired 
of  realizing  in  a  world  like  this,  have  been  suc- 
cessfully wrought   out    and    maintained    by    the 
Gospel;  for  its  legitimate   offspring  ever  is  that  JbieiS^^ 
godliness   which   is   "profitable   unto   all    things,  ^^^' 
having  promise  of  the  life  that  now  is,  as  well  as 
of  that  which  is  to  come." 


We  read,  a  short  time  affo,  in  a  paper  written  ^r.  Fred. 

"^  r    r  Harrison's 

by  a  well-known  leader  among  the  Comtists — Mr.  JJ,^^°° 
Frederic   Harrison— that    "Christianity  does  not  Christianity. 


58  Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism. 

even  claim  to  be  co-extensive  with  human  life." 

Either  Mr.  Harrison  or  we  must  have  entirely  mis- 

christianity   ^^^^  the  Now  Testament.     To  our  apprehension  it 

human  iif«    claims  to   touch  human   life   at  every  point — to 

at  every  ... 

point.  mould  and  magisterially  direct  every  thing  in  in- 

dividual, domestic,  and  public  life.  For  it  lays 
down  principles  which  penetrate  man  all  through, 
building  up  the  individual  anew  from  the  very 
foundation  of  his  being,  and,  through  the  individual, 
as  we  have  said,  reforming  and  regulating  society. 
Accepted,  it  regenerates  the  man ;  and,  so  far  as 
accepted,  it  regenerates  the  world.  It  reconciles 
man  with  man  by  reconciling  man  with  God. 

The  In  the  preceding  pages  we  have  sought  to  state 

of^u^o^  and  illustrate  facts — avoiding,  as  far  as  possible, 
civilization,    j^gpe  Speculation.     Yet  one  question  unavoidably 
suggests  itself,  after  this   long  review  of  fallen 
civilizations  and  extinct  systems  of  belief.     What 
of  our  own  civilization  ?  is  it  secure  ?     We  answer, 
coiSn  on      ^^^*  ^  ^^^  Christianity  is  secure.     "  Civilization 
dviiizatioiL    -^  Q^  ^^y^„  g^-^  YictoT  Cousin,  "means  Christ- 
ianity."     If  we  draw  inferences  from   the  past, 
we  must  hold  that  were  materialism,  agnosticism, 
or  even  mere  deism  to  prevail  to  any  considerable 
The  con-       cxtout,  tho  couseouences  would  be  most  serious. 

sequences 

of  the  Morality  would    sradually  give  way.     Then   the 

prevalence  •'  *-'  >/     o  j 

foraf  0?*^*    wem^si*  of  which  we  spoke  above  ^  would  soon  step 
onbeUef.       ^^      j^  ^^j^^   would   au  infidelity,  calling  itself 

^  See  page  41. 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism.  69 

scientific  or  pMlosopliic,  rear  its  proud  head  and 
try  to  suppress  all  faith  ; — bastard  forms  of  belief, 
and  low,  superstitious  practices  would  force  them- 
selves in,  and  infect,  ere  long,  the  savants  them- 
selves. Les  incredules  les  plus  credulcs}  said  PascaL 
Even  already  we  witness,  to  our  astonishment,  the  Esoteric 

•^  /  .  Buddhism 

spread,  to  some  extent,  in  Europe  and  America,  of  in  Europe 
theosophy, "  esoteric  Buddhism,"  and  various  kindred  ^^^^rica. 
foUies — precisely  as,  of  old,^lotinus  and  Porphyry 
had    a   legitimate   successor  in  lamblichus,   and 
soaring  philosophy  was  debased  into  magic  and 
theurgy. 

These  things  are,  no  doubt,  humbling.     Yet  we 
do  not  bate  a  jot  of  heart  or  hope.   Christianity 
cannot  perish.     Even  now,  while  we  mourn  over 
the  falling  away  of  some,  one  plainly  sees  that,  ^reaS^ 
taking  the  human  race  as  a  whole,  Christianity  is  d^^pening. 
steadily  extending  and  deepening.     Trial  may  be 
in  store, — the  forces  of  belief  and  unbeKef  may  be 
ranging  themselves  for  a  final  struggle;  but,  ere 
long,  to  Him,  who  now  rules  in  the  midst  of  His 
enemies,  "  every  knee  shall  bow,  and  every  tongue  J*?  uitimat*' 
confess."     Does  there  seem  a  tone  of  pride — while 
rebuking  pride — in  these  words  of  ours  ?     If  so, 
we  desire  to  put  the  feeling  from  us — remembering 
the  words  of  the  blessed  Master  :  "  I,  if  I  be  lifted 
up  from  the  earth,  will  draw  all  men  unto  Myself."* 

*  Unbelievers  are  the  most  credulous  of  alL 


60 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism. 


The 

attraction 
of  the 


He  was  first  lifted  up  on  the  cross,  before  He  was 
lifted  up  to  His  throne  in  heaven ;  and  it  is  now 
only  by  the  manifestation  of  His  cross  and  its  deep 
meanings  that  hard  hearts  are  melted  and  drawn 
to  Him  with  irresistible  attraction ;  and  doubtless 
the  bright  consummation  of  a  regenerated  and 
rejoicing  world  would  be  sooner  reached,  if  only  we. 
His  followers,  had  more  of  the  Master's  spirit — 
ever  seeking  in  meekness  and  love  like  His 


Christ  and 
iris  people. 


The 

function  of 
the  Church 
to  shine. 


With  winning  words  to  conquer  willing  hearts 
And  make  persuasion  do  the  work  of  fear. 

He  who  said  of  Himself, "  I  am  the  Light  of  the 
world,"  said  also  of  His  people,  "  Ye  are  the  light 
of  the  world."  He  is  the  Sun.  His  Church  is  the 
Moon  ;  which,  in  His  absence,  is  commanded  to 
shine,  full -orbed  and  cloudless,  on  the  world. 

Oh,  Church  of  the  Living  God  !  "  arise,  shine, 
for  thy  light  is  come  ;  and  the  glory  of  the  Lord 
is  risen  upon  thee." 


APPENDIX 


On  'rtkif  Rfxioions  of  Uncivilized  Anciknt  Nations. — 
We  have  already  intimated  that  little  notice  need  be  taken  o! 
these.  Nearly  everything  we  know  about  them  is  fitted  t* 
excite  disgust  and  horror. 

1.  Druidism  was  the  faith  of  the  Celtic  (including  the  Cyunic)    Notices  of 
races.     We  have  notices  of  it  in  seven  or  eight  classical  writers    jn'^ciassiciil 
— particularly  Caesar,  Tacitus,  and  Pliny.     A   few  hints  may  be    writers,  etc 
gathered  from  old  Gaelic  and  Welsh  poems — such  as  th<)t^e  of 
Ossian  and  Taliessin  ;  but  their  historical  value  is  questionable. 

The  Druids,  the  religious  leaders  of  the  people,  were  of  three    Three 
classes.     The  lowest  consisted  of  the  bards  ;  the  second  of  those    Druids, 
who    watched    natural    phenomena;    the   highest   were    more 
properly  priests.     An    arch-druid   presided  over  all ;    who  ap- 
parently wielded  unbounded  power. 

There  were  also  three  classes  of  Druidesses.  The  highest  Three 
formed  a  kind  of  Vestal  virgins  ;  who  lived  in  sisterhoods  and  Druidesses. 
never  married.  These  predicted  coming  events,  cured  diseases, 
raised  storms  or  calmed  them,  and  transformed  themselves  into 
whatever  shape  they  pleased.  In  fact,  the  lingering  superstitions 
about  witches  in  Western  Europe  are  traceable  back  to  Druidio 
times. 

With  regard  to  the  deities  the  Roman  poet  Lucan  speaks  thus  i 

Here  Hesua'  horrid  altar  stands, 

Here  dire  Teutates  human  blood  demands ; 

Here  Taranis  by  wretches  is  obeyed, 

And  vies  in  slaughter  with  the  Scythian  maid.* 

The  oak  tree,  the  acorn,  and  especially  the  mistletoe — a  small    Suciwd  tree, 
plant  that  grows  on  the  oak — were  especially  sacred.     Worship 
was  performed  in  dark  groves.^    Human  sacrifices  v.ere  frequent,    ^^^g^ 
Otcsar  informs  us  that  they  made  enormous  figures  of  wicker 
work,  and  filled  them  with  humau  beings,  whom  they  burnt  to 
death.  

^  Rowe's  Lucan,  Book  i. 

^  Lucan,  Pharsalia,  Bookiii.,  gives  a  striking  descripiioB  #^ 
ft  gloomy  grove  near  Marseilles. 


62 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism. 


Even  the  priestesses  performed  such  dreadful  services.  Strabo 
speaks  thus  of  these  among  the  Cirabri  :  **  The  women  who 
follow  the  Cimbri  to  war  are  accompanied  by  grey-haired 
prophetesses.  They  go  with  drawn  swords  through  the  camp^ 
strike  down  the  prisoners  they  meet,  and  drag  them  to  a  brazen 
caldron.  There  is  an  erection  above  this,  on  which  the  priestess 
cuts  the  throat  of  the  victim,  and  watches  how  the  blood  flows 
into  the  vessel.  Others  tear  open  the  bodies  of  the  captives  and 
judge  from  the  quivering  entrails  as  to  future  events." 

Excommunication  by  the  Druids  was  a  tremendous  infliction. 
It  must  have  involved  death  or  unconditional  submission  to  the 
priests," 


Excom- 
municatior 
and  its 
penalty. 

Ancient 

German 

religion 

morally 

no  higher 

than  the 

Celte. 

Nature- 
worship  its 
foundation. 


No  account 
of  the 
Slavonian 
faith  in  an 
old  form. 


2.  The  Religion  op  the  Ancient  Germans. — Caesar  and 
Tacitus  supply  us  with  interesting  information  regarding  this 
system  ;  and  the  Edda  of  Scandinavia  tells  ug  much  regarding 
its  character  at  a  later  date.  It  was  morally  no  higher  than  that 
of  the  Celts. 

Nature-worship  was  its  main  foundation.  Sun,  Moon,  Fire, 
Earth,  were  greatly  worshipped.  Woden  (in  the  Edda,  Odin) 
was  the  chief  deity ;  he  was  the  god  of  war.  Thunor  (Thor) 
was  the  god  of  thunder.  He  wielded,  and  made  much  use  of 
a  tremendous  hammer.  Lok,  or  Loki,  was  an  evil  being,  at 
war  with  the  gods  ;  but  at  present  a  tortured  prisoner.  Walhalla 
was  heaven.  It  was  a  place  where  the  blessed  warriors  every 
day  hacked  each  other  to  pieces,  then  got  cured,  and  wound  up 
the  day  by  drinking  mead— an  intoxicating  beverage — out  ol 
the  skulls  of  slaughtered  enemies. 

Human  sacrifices — especially  of  captives — were  frequent.  A 
King  of  Sweden  is  said  to  have  sacrificed  nine  of  his  sons  in 
succession,  in  order  to  prolong  his  own  life.  A  kind  of  wild- 
beast  ferocity  marked  the  people :  the  celebrated  death-song 
of  Ragnar  Lodbrok  "breathes  slaughter"  throughout.  All 
hopefulness  seems  banished  from  this  faith.  Balder,  the 
brightest  of  the  gods,  is  slain  ;  and  we  are  approaching  the 
dreadful  time 

When  Lok  shall  burst  his  sevenfold  chain, 
And  night  resume  her  ancient  reign. 

3.  The  Reuqign  of  the  Ancient  Slavonians.— We  have 
no  satisfactory  account  of  this  faith  in  a  very  old  form.  The 
last  stronghold  of  it  was  the  island  of  Rugen,  in  the  Baltic. 


Christianity  and  Ancient  Paganism, 


63 


The  account 
of  Saxo 
Granamati- 

CUB. 


This  was  destroyed  in  1168  by  Waldemar,  King  of  Denmark. 
Saxo  Grammaticus,  a  contemporary  of  Waldemar's,  gives  a  long 
account  of  the  chief  idol  there  worshipped.  He  describes  it  as 
a  gigantic  figure,  with  four  heads  and  four  necks — two  breasts 
and  two  backs.  Cattle  were  sacrificed  to  it.  In  sweeping  the 
temple,  the  priest  did  not  dare  to  breathe ;  and  for  every 
necessary  inspiration  he  had  to  quit  the  temple.  At  the  reUgious 
festivals  intemperance  was  deemed  a  merit.  The  idol  had  a 
horse,  of  whose  tail  or  mane  to  pull  a  single  hair  was  sacrilege. 
It  bore  the  god  whenever  he  fought  against  his  enemies,  and 
was  often  found  in  the  morning  covered  with  sweat  and  mud 
in  consequence.  A  standard  consecrated  to  the  god  entitled 
those  who  bore  it  to  pillage  even  the  temples,  and  to  commit 
any  kind  of  outrage.  Such  is  the  testimony  of  Saxo 
Grammaticus. 

The  religion  of  the  SlavonianB  was  evidently  very  childish  ; 
but  it  was  not  so  ferodoiu  as  that  of  the  Celts  or  the  Germans. 


Slavonias 

religion 

ehildish. 


a  selection  from 

Fleming  H.  Revell  Company's 

catalogue 


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